This research paper explores the role of waqf (Islamic endowment) in sustainable water management across various Muslim civilizations, highlighting its historical significance and enduring impact. Throughout Islamic history, waqf has been a powerful tool for the development and maintenance of water infrastructure, including canals, aqueducts, wells, and irrigation systems. This paper examines key examples of water-related waqf initiatives from different periods to illustrate how waqf played a crucial role in providing equitable access to water resources, supporting agriculture, fostering urban development, caring about public welfare and health, and protecting the environment. By integrating Islamic principles of social justice, environmental stewardship, and public welfare, waqf ensured the long-term sustainability of water resources in both rural and urban settings. The research highlights the relevance of these historical practices for modern water management challenges, emphasizing how waqf principles can contribute to contemporary efforts for sustainable development, particularly in water-scarce regions. The study concludes by suggesting how waqf mechanisms can be revitalized and adapted to address current local as well as global water issues, blending Islamic traditions with modern governance frameworks for more resilient and equitable water resource management.
Endowment Charter (‘Waqfiyya’) of Haseki Hürrem Sultan. Istanbul, 1556-57 (TIEM 2192)
1. Introduction
Waqf can be defined as: Holding a Maal (an asset) and preventing its consumption for [1] the purpose of repeatedly extracting its usufruct for the benefit of an objective representing righteousness and/or philanthropy for as long as its principal is preserved either by its own nature -as in land -or from arrangements and conditions prescribed by the Waqf founder [2]. The application of Waqf is one form of individual Muslim social responsibility toward society.
The record of Islamic history reveals to us an active and influential role of the Waqf in the field of providing, managing and distributing fresh water, thus preserving the environment and its natural resources, of which water comes at the forefront. The historical experience of the endowment system shows that the greater the scarcity of water in an area, the greater the importance of the endowment’s contribution to its provision, availability, and development of its sources, and also work to establish frameworks for systems of rules and ethics for the consumption and handling of this vital resource [3].
The endowment project dates back to before Islam such as the building and endowment of the Holy Kaaba by Prophet Ibrahim Al-Khalil [4]. Muslim historians believe that the first Waqf in the Islamic world was the mosque of Quba, which was constructed on the outskirts of Al-Madinatul Munawwara. Waqf subsequently involves the provision of expanded access to a variety of socioeconomic infrastructure for the benefit of society [5,6].
Part of ongoing charity or an example of it is the work of endowment and continuous giving for the needy. Providing access to clean water is considered a fundamental human right and a religious obligation in Islam. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) emphasized the importance of ensuring access to water for all, and establishing water-related Waqfs serves as a means of fulfilling this obligation [7].
The history of Islamic civilization records that endowment (Waqf) has been a supporting pillar in upholding the social-religious institutions of the Muslim society for centuries. Waqf at that time carried out significant social functions by providing public facilities, such as roads, bridges, drinking water, city parks, public bathing places, and so on. This Waqf practice has been going on for a long time in the history of Islam, even though its form and purpose are very rapidly developing [8,9].
In accordance with the application of the principle of eternity to Waqf, the Islamic
definition of Waqf allows Waqf assets to continue to accumulate. This means that Waqf principal assets cannot be sold or otherwise disposed of, meaning that Waqf property remains in the domain of endowments, and every new Waqf will be added to that domain, implying that the nature of Waqf can only grow. They are prohibited from reducing Waqf property because it is unlawful to consume Waqf property or leave it idle due to negligence or violation [10].
When water Waqf was endowed or established – whether it was a well, spring, fountain for recreation, beautification or public drinking- an appointed caretaker or observer was responsible for ensuring for the proper operation and maintenance of the endowment. The salary of the observer was initially set as a separate endowment [11].ac
A Waqf is concluded if the owner of the water source intended to be Waqfed owns the source or has the full right to dispose of it. Otherwise, the Waqf is not concluded. After the endowment is established, the ownership of the endowment is transferred to the endowment department or institution, which disposes of it as it deems appropriate for the benefit of the beneficiaries. In some cases the endowment is limited to the use of the water source only and the ownership stays in the hands of the owner. Also, the use could be limited for example to drinking or irrigation or else [12].
There is no clear text in the Holy Qur’an that explains the way to manage the endowment, but the Prophet’s biography, Muslim caliphs, and Muslim scholars worked diligently and carefully and created a framework for working with the endowment and managing it [13].
With the passing of time, several issues nowadays remain in the practice of Waqf management due to traditional tendencies, minimal improvement in innovation, and a lack of professionalism in governance. Challenges facing waqf are many and include issues related to transparency, accountability, and effective governance, which impact the management of Waqf institutions [14]. Reforms needed to waqf institutions need to focus on enhancing governance structures, introducing modern management practices, and addressing challenges faced to ensure effective Waqf administration [15]. Understanding the specifics of Waqf governance including challenges and needed reform is important to maintain stability and continuity for such charitable institution and the maintenance of its valuable assets and resources [16], and to proper management of its limited financial resources [17].
This paper examines water Waqf (endowment) and its enduring effect and impact on Muslims, their water resources, and the environment throughout Muslim civilization.
2. Examples of Waqf Water Projects Initiatives and Practices Throughout History
The following examples throughout various Muslim civilizations represent a sample of many and these (1) provide insights into the use of Waqf for developing water projects, (2) illustrate the critical role that the Waqf system played in ensuring sustainable water access, both for public use and agriculture, and (3) demonstrate the extensive use of Waqf in water management. Water Waqf projects we used in almost all aspects of life including:
2.1 Sabeels or Public Water Fountains
2.2 Groundwater Wells
2.3 Water Supply and Distribution
2.4 Urbanization and beautification of cities
2.5 Water Bridges, Channels (Qanats), Reservoirs, and Cisterns
2.6 Public Bathes (Hammam)
2.7 Long Distance Water Transport
2.8 People’s Welfare, Public Health, and Aesthetics
2.9 Irrigation Systems and Agricultural Prosperity, and Forestry
2.10 Water Waqf for granting and regulating water rights
2.11 Religious duty and social responsibility
2.12 Water Scarcity in Arid Environment
2.13 Development and maintenance of Large Scale Water Projects
It is important to note that the examples of water Waqf projects listed below intersect in more than one area or field of use and one example may be mentioned in more than one location for their suitability to both or more uses.
2. 1 Sabeels or Public Water Fountains
It was reported [18] In Medinah and during Prophet Muhammad’s period, a circled structure was built on a spring where two water fountains were installed and operated [19].
Sabeels (Water Fountains) of the Mamluks (Cairo, Egypt): Mamluk rulers and elites endowed Waqfs to construct sabeels that provided clean drinking water to the public. These fountains, common in Cairo, were vital for urban areas with limited water access. For instance, the Sabeel-Kuttab of Sultan Qaytbay was funded through Waqf for both educational and water distribution purposes [20].
Ottoman Sabeels in Jerusalem: Many Ottoman rulers used Waqf to build and maintain public water fountains in Jerusalem, crucial for residents and pilgrims. One of the most famous is the Sabeel of Qayt Bay near the Al-Aqsa Mosque, funded by an endowment to supply water to the city’s inhabitants and visitors [21].
In Jerusalem, sabeels such as the Sabeel of Qaytbay (built in 1482) provided free drinking water to the public, improving hygiene and reducing waterborne diseases [22].
2.2 Groundwater Wells
The construction of wells through Islamic waqf projects was a widespread practice that addressed the critical need for water in both urban and rural settings. These wells provided reliable access to water for drinking, irrigation, public utilities, and religious practices.
The Well of Rumah (Bi’r Rumah) [23] and the water well for Mosque of Quba (Quba Mosque) [24], and the Agreement of Hudaybiyyah (Treaty of Hudaybiyyah) which included a provision for mutual access to water resources [25-27]
During the Fatimid period (909–1171 CE), Fatima al-Ma’mun, a wealthy noblewoman, endowed a large well in Cairo to provide water to residents and travelers. The well, which was established as a waqf, was part of a broader system of wells and cisterns that served the growing population of Cairo. Fatima’s endowment also covered the maintenance and expansion of the well to ensure a steady supply of water throughout the year [28,29]
During the Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1260 CE), several waqf-funded wells were established in Damascus to address the city’s growing demand for water. The Ayyubid rulers, including Salah ad-Din (Saladin), were known for their public works, including the construction of wells and water distribution systems. These wells were dug strategically in densely populated areas to ensure that local residents, as well as travelers, had access to clean water [30,31].
During the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922), waqf endowments were used extensively to dig wells and establish water systems throughout Istanbul. These wells were part of a broader public infrastructure aimed at improving access to clean water in both urban and rural areas. One notable example is the Süleymaniye Waqf, established by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, which included wells as part of a larger water distribution system that also supplied mosques, schools, and public baths [32,33].
During the Islamic period in Al-Andalus, waqf endowments were used to dig wells across cities like Cordoba, Granada, and Seville. These wells were part of a broader system of water management that included aqueducts, reservoirs, and qanats (underground channels). The waqf wells provided much-needed water for both urban and rural communities [34,35].
In the arid and semi-arid regions of North Africa, waqf funds were used to dig groundwater wells that served both rural communities and nomadic groups. These wells, often located in remote areas, were vital for providing water to people, livestock, and crops. Many of these wells were funded by waqf through local rulers, religious leaders, or wealthy individuals as acts of charity [36,37].
2.3 Water Supply and Distribution
Waqf of Water Distribution in Zanzibar (19th Century): In East Africa, during the Omani Sultanate, Waqf was used to maintain water systems that supported urban areas like Zanzibar, providing essential water infrastructure for both drinking and irrigation purposes [38].
Waqf in Mughal India (Delhi): During the Mughal Empire, several sultans used Waqf to fund the construction and maintenance of water supply systems. The Hauz-i-Shamsi (reservoir), commissioned by Sultan Iltutmish in 1230 CE, was an important endowment for providing water to the capital of Delhi. These reservoirs were integral to both domestic and agricultural use [39].
Water Distribution in Tunis (Hafsid Dynasty): Under the Hafsid rulers of Tunis, the Waqf system was utilized to fund waterworks, including aqueducts and fountains. These projects ensured the provision of fresh drinking water to both the general public and religious institutions such as mosques and madrasas [40].
The Aqueduct of Al-Haramayn in Mecca and Medina (10th century), funded by Waqf, supplied pilgrims with fresh water, ensuring sanitation during Hajj [41].
2.4 Urbanization and beautification of cities
Waqf played a role in urban development during the Umayyad era. The endowment of properties, including markets and public spaces, and various water projects contributed to the growth of cities [42].
In cities like Baghdad and Samarra, these Waqf-funded water supply systems supported the rapid urban development that occurred during al-Mahdi’s reign. The construction of public baths and mosques was a key part of the Abbasid urban planning strategy, and the availability of water was crucial to their functioning [43].
During the Abbasid period, the city of Al-Fustat (the precursor to Cairo) grew significantly as a political and commercial hub. The construction and maintenance of the city’s water supply systems were often funded by Waqf endowments. Aqueducts brought water from the Nile to supply the city’s mosques, public baths, and homes. Waqf funds supported the construction of public baths and fountains, which were essential for both public hygiene and religious practices (ablution). water from the Nile, distributed through Waqf-funded canals, also irrigated agricultural lands in the surrounding region [44].
The public fountains built through Waqf funding in Ottoman Istanbul, such as the Tophane Fountain (1732), added to the city’s beauty while providing clean water to residents. These fountains were often intricately designed with elaborate carvings, contributing to both civic life and urban aesthetics [45].
The Sultan Hassan Complex in Cairo, built with Waqf funds, features stunning fountains in its courtyards. These provided water for religious and public use while enhancing the grandeur and beauty of the mosque and madrasa complex. The Waqf funding sustained the maintenance of these water features for centuries [46].
The Alhambra in Granada, Spain, showcases how Waqf funds were used to develop complex water features such as the Patio de los Leones fountain. The integration of water into the gardens and architecture of the Alhambra not only served practical needs but also represented a major aesthetic element in Islamic urban design [47].
The city of Fez is home to numerous public fountains that were funded through Waqf endowments, enhancing the aesthetic appeal of the city’s squares and public spaces. The intricate design of these fountains, often inscribed with Quranic verses, demonstrates the Waqf system’s role in combining functionality with beauty [48].
2.5 Water Bridges, Channels (Qanats), Reservoirs, and Cisterns
Waqfs were instrumental in the construction and maintenance of water channels (acequias) for agricultural irrigation. The management of these infrastructure projects was overseen by Waqf administrators, ensuring sustainable water use [49].
Waqf for Water Canals in Damascus (Syria): Under the Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties, Waqf funds were used to construct and maintain canals that supplied water to the city of Damascus. These canals provided water for both domestic use and agricultural irrigation, helping sustain the city’s population and economy [50].
The Great Umayyad Water System (Damascus, Syria): The Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus set up Waqf-funded water channels and reservoirs to serve the capital city. Public fountains and elaborate irrigation systems played a significant role in sustaining agriculture and public water access, funded and maintained through charitable endowments [51].
Waqf-funded bridges over the Tigris facilitated the movement of goods and people across the city, while the canals provided water to public institutions, such as mosques, schools, and hospitals. The Waqf system helped maintain this infrastructure, ensuring its long-term sustainability [52].
Waqf funds were also used to ensure that water from Al-Hasa qanat system built in an oasis in Eastern Arabia was available to local residents for domestic use, as well as for public baths, mosques, and for irrigation. Water was channeled through an intricate system of underground canals (qanat). This canal helped maintain the welfare of the community and ensured that water rights were fairly distributed [53].
A 12th-century caravanserai in northeastern Iran, Ribat-i Sharaf, had a Waqf-funded water cistern providing clean water to travellers, aiding sanitation and public health in the region [54].
In cities like Yazd, Iran, Waqf-supported qanat (underground water channels) systems helped transport water to public fountains and gardens, beautifying cities while ensuring the sustainability of water resources. These systems were funded by Waqf to promote public welfare and urban development [55].
Al-Mahdi financed the construction of a canal system in Baghdad to ensure that the city, which was rapidly growing, had an adequate water supply. This canal, funded through waqf, brought water from the Tigris River into the city, providing water for both public and private uses [56].
2.6 Public Bathes (Hammam)
Baths (hammams) that served as important social and hygienic centers. The upkeep and accessibility of these facilities were ensured through dedicated Waqf endowments [57]. Islamic water Waqf (charitable endowment) projects contributed significantly to the development and maintenance of public baths (hammams) in Islamic civilization. The following examples of hammams were not only centers for cleanliness and hygiene but also played important roles in community life, social welfare, and urban infrastructure and planning:
The Hammams of Damascus (Syria). Hammams in Damascus, particularly those built during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods (12th–16th centuries) [58]. Many hammams in Damascus were funded and maintained through Waqf endowments. Wealthy patrons or rulers would establish a Waqf for the bathhouses, often providing a sustainable water source such as a well or aqueduct as part of the endowment.
Hammam al-Malik Zahir (Aleppo, Syria). Hammam al-Malik Zahir, was established in the 13th century by Sultan al-Zahir Ghazi, son of Salah al-Din (Saladin), in Aleppo [59]. The construction of the hammam was supported by a Waqf that provided water from an aqueduct system fed by underground springs. This Waqf ensured that the hammam had a constant and sustainable water supply for bathing and cleanliness.
Hammams of Cairo (Egypt). Hammam al-Sultan al-Ghuri, was built in the 16th century under Sultan Qansuh al-Ghuri’s Waqf [60]. The hammam was endowed with a Waqf that provided it with water from an aqueduct system. This ensured a consistent supply of water, which was crucial for the operation of the public bath.
Hammam al-Nur al-Din (Damascus, Syria). Hammam al-Nur al-Din, was built by Nur al-Din Zengi in the 12th century [61] This hammam was funded through a Waqf that included water rights from a local spring. The Waqf system ensured the hammam had a continuous supply of water, which was used for both bathing and heating the steam rooms.
Hammam al-Basha (Tripoli, Lebanon). Hammam al-Basha, was built in the 18th century during the Ottoman era in Tripoli [62]. The hammam was built with funds from a Waqf endowment, which ensured it had access to water from the nearby river or an underground aqueduct. This allowed the bathhouse to operate continuously, providing essential services to the people of Tripoli.
The Hammams of Fez (Morocco). Hammams in Fez, especially during the Marinid dynasty in the 14th century [63]. Many public baths in Fez were financed through Waqf endowments, which included water rights to nearby rivers or springs. This allowed the bathhouses to provide hot and cold water for bathing.
Hammam al-Andalus (Granada, Spain). Hammam al-Andalus (Alhambra Baths), was built during the Nasrid Dynasty in the 13th century [64]. This hammam was supported by a Waqf that provided water from nearby rivers and aqueducts. The use of Waqf ensured the continuity of water supply, allowing the baths to remain operational for centuries.
Hammam al-Nahhasin (Baghdad, Iraq). Hammam al-Nahhasin, was built during the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad in the 9th century [65]. The hammam received its water through a Waqf, which provided for the construction and maintenance of canals that brought water from the Tigris River. This system ensured a steady supply of water for both bathing and heating.
Hammam as-Saffarin (Fez, Morocco). Hammam as-Saffarin, was established in the 14th century during the Marinid dynasty in Fez [66]. The hammam was endowed with a Waqf that secured its water supply through underground canals connected to local springs. The Waqf also covered the expenses for maintaining the facility, ensuring its continued operation.
Hammam al-Sultan (Jerusalem, Palestine). Hammam al-Sultan, was built during the Mamluk period in the 14th century [67]. The hammam was supported by a Waqf that secured its water supply from a nearby spring, ensuring the facility could serve the public consistently. The Waqf also financed the maintenance of the bathhouse, enabling it to operate for centuries.
Hammam Dar al-Batha (Marrakech, Morocco). Hammam Dar al-Batha, was built in the 19th century by Sultan Moulay Hassan I as part of the Dar al-Batha palace complex in Marrakech [68]. The hammam’s operation was ensured by a Waqf, which guaranteed a continuous water supply from an underground aqueduct connected to nearby rivers. The Waqf also covered the cost of maintaining the baths.
Hammam al-Qishla (Baghdad, Iraq). Hammam al-Qishla, was built in the 19th century during the Ottoman period [69]. The bath was supported by a Waqf that ensured a steady water supply from the nearby Tigris River. The Waqf also funded the ongoing maintenance of the hammam, making it a key institution in Baghdad’s public life.
2.7 Long Distance Water Transport
Ain Zubaydah, which is attributed to Zubaydah bint Abi Jaafar al-Mansur, wife of Harun al-Rashid, descends from Wadi Numan, below the Hejaz Mountains, through water channels up to a depth of 40 meters underground and built of perforated stone, and the channels have been constructed in a precise way so that they reach the holy sites in of Makkah on the surface of the earth and from which the pilgrims can quench directly. It took 10 years to build the system and it includes 51 underground water tanks. The Ain was endowed by Zubaydah striving for the sake of Allah [70, 71].
During al-Mahdi’s reign, waqf was used to develop and expand qanat systems in the arid regions of Khurasan. These underground channels tapped into groundwater sources and transported water over long distances to towns and farmlands. The funding through waqf ensured the construction and maintenance of these qanats, which were essential for sustaining agriculture in the semi-arid areas of the Abbasid Empire [72].
2.8 People’s Welfare, Public Health, and Aesthetics
The Waqf-funded water supply systems of the Al-Mansuri bimaristan (hospital) in Cairo (1284) contributed to the hospital’s sanitation, helping reduce infections and ensuring a clean water supply for patients [73].
In Istanbul, the Süleymaniye Mosque Complex (1557) included a Waqf-funded water supply that provided clean water to mosques, public baths, and fountains, promoting public health [74].
The Ayn al-Fijah Waqf in Damascus (from the 14th century) funded a large-scale water supply system that served the city’s public baths, fountains, and mosques, providing clean drinking water and improving public sanitation [75].
The Alhambra complex in Granada featured a Waqf-supported water system. It included fountains and baths that enhanced both public health and aesthetics [76].
The Waqf System in Ottoman Turkey. The Süleymaniye Mosque Complex in Istanbul, was built by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century [77]. The complex included a large public fountain and a cistern to provide clean water to the community. This not only addressed the practical needs of the people but also symbolized the ruler’s commitment to the welfare of his subjects.
The Al-Khair Foundation’s Water Projects in Africa and Asia, active in the 21st century [78]. The foundation installs water wells, hand pumps, and water filtration systems in underserved areas, providing access to clean water which is crucial for health and development.
The Fountains of Cairo. The Historical Fountains of Cairo, particularly those established during the Mamluk period [79]. The fountains, often funded by Waqf endowments, provided free water to the public, embodying the Islamic principle of charity and public service. Many of these fountains were designed with intricate Islamic art and architecture, influencing both aesthetic and functional designs in the region.
The Qanats of Iran. Qanats in Iran, particularly those established during the early Islamic period [80]. Qanats are underground aqueducts designed to transport water from aquifers in highlands to lowlands for irrigation and drinking. This innovative system allowed for efficient water distribution over long distances and is a prime example of early hydrological engineering. In addition, it enabled agricultural development in arid regions, supporting the growth of crops and settlements.
Hawa Trust Water Projects in Bangladesh [81]. The trust has funded the construction of numerous community wells and water purification systems in rural areas. In addition to providing clean water, the projects include educational programs on hygiene and water conservation.
The Madrasa of Al-Azhar in Cairo, was established in the 10th century [82]. The institution included wells and water cisterns as part of its complex, providing water for both educational and public purposes. The endowment for maintaining these facilities was a significant part of the Waqf, reflecting the institution’s commitment to community welfare.
2.9 Irrigation Systems and Agricultural Prosperity and Forestry
Moorish Irrigation Systems (Al-Andalus, Spain): Waqf funds were used to maintain and develop advanced irrigation systems (acequias) in Al-Andalus during the Muslim rule. These systems sustained agriculture, with water management being crucial to the region’s food production and overall economy [83].
Waqf of the Water Systems in Baghdad (Abbasid Caliphate): During the Abbasid period, Baghdad saw the establishment of large-scale Waqf-funded waterworks, including irrigation canals and public water fountains. These were essential in supporting the city’s growth, ensuring a continuous supply of water for agriculture and public consumption [84].
Waqf for Irrigation Systems in the Hejaz (Saudi Arabia): In the Hejaz region, historical records indicate that the Waqf was used to maintain irrigation systems supporting date palm agriculture. The importance of such Waqf-based initiatives was seen in ensuring that water reached farms and markets, sustaining agricultural production [85].
Waqf endowments funded the construction of canals and aqueducts that diverted water from the Barada River to irrigate the fertile lands of the Al-Ghouta region surrounding Damascus. The Waqf-supported infrastructure also supplied water to Damascus itself, providing for public fountains, mosques, and baths [86].
The Nahrawan Canal, originally built by the Sassanids, was restored and expanded during the Abbasid era through Waqf endowments. This large-scale project diverted water from the Tigris River to irrigate agricultural lands around Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. The canal system required regular maintenance to ensure a steady flow of water for both agriculture and urban use. Waqf endowments were crucial in funding the cleaning, repair, and expansion of the canal system [87].
The Sabeel of Al-Nasir Muhammad (early 14th century) in Cairo funded irrigation canals that provided water for agriculture and drinking, improving overall public health [88].
Al-Harraqan Irrigation System, Morocco. This Waqf-supported irrigation project in Fez managed water distribution across agricultural lands, boosting crop yields and sustaining farming communities [89].
Hama Water Wheels (Norias), Syria. These 14th-century Waqf-funded norias in Hama lifted water from the Orontes River, providing irrigation for surrounding farms and increasing local agricultural productivity [90].
Sakara Dam, Egypt. The Waqf-funded dam near Cairo was built to regulate water for farming along the Nile, ensuring year-round agricultural activities [91].
Al-Qattara Oasis, UAE. The Falaj system in the Al-Ain region, funded through Waqf, efficiently distributed water from underground sources to agricultural lands, ensuring sustained crop production[92].
Alhambra’s Acequias, Spain. These intricate water channels were part of a Waqf system in Granada during the Islamic rule, bringing water to orchards and farms, enhancing agricultural growth [93].
Ottoman Irrigation Systems, Turkey. The Ottoman Empire funded large-scale Waqf irrigation systems, such as the ones in Bursa, which boosted agricultural production by providing water for large tracts of farmland [94].
During the period of Muslim rule in Andalusia (711–1492), waqf was used extensively to support water management projects that provided irrigation for agricultural land as well as forested areas. In regions like Granada and Cordoba, forests and agricultural terraces were irrigated through elaborate systems of canals and aqueducts, many of which were funded by waqf endowments. These projects ensured that water reached areas where reforestation and afforestation were taking place [95].
During the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922), waqf endowments were created to protect and manage forested areas, particularly in regions like Anatolia. These waqf endowments funded the construction of water channels and reservoirs that supplied water to both forests and agricultural lands. In addition to maintaining natural forest ecosystems, these water waqf projects helped in reforesting degraded areas [96].
In Palestine and Syria, waqf funds were allocated for the reforestation of lands that had been deforested due to overgrazing or agricultural expansion. Water channels and irrigation systems were established through these endowments to support the growth of new trees and to maintain existing forests [97,98].
In Morocco, during both the Almoravid (1040–1147) and the later dynasties, waqf endowments were used to manage water resources that supported forests in the Atlas Mountains. These endowments funded the construction of aqueducts, wells, and water storage systems that ensured that forested areas had a steady water supply throughout the year, even in periods of drought [99,100].
In Ottoman Syria, waqf projects were established to ensure the availability of water for both agricultural use and the protection of natural forests. Around Damascus, several waqf-funded water channels were constructed to support the irrigation of forested areas that had been designated as protected by local rulers. These areas were often seen as important for preserving natural habitats and ensuring that the region had adequate wood and other natural resources [101,102].
2.10 Water Waqf for granting and regulating water rights
Islamic water Waqf projects played a crucial role in granting and regulating water rights, ensuring equitable distribution among community members, particularly in regions where water was scarce. These projects not only facilitated access to water for agricultural and domestic purposes but also laid the foundations for sophisticated systems of water governance in Islamic societies. Below are some examples of how water Waqf projects were used for granting water rights and regulating equitable distribution:
The Waqf System and Water Rights in Cordoba (Spain). Al-Hakam II’s Aqueduct Project (10th century) in Cordoba, during the Umayyad Caliphate of al-Andalus [103]. Al-Hakam II, the ruler of the Umayyad Caliphate in Spain, established a Waqf for the construction and maintenance of an elaborate aqueduct system that supplied water to the city of Cordoba. This Waqf not only provided water for the city’s mosques, public baths, and households but also regulated the fair distribution of water to agricultural lands surrounding the city.
Water Waqf and the Distribution System of the Yemeni Highlands. Marib Dam Water Waqf (built initially in 8th century BCE, later restored in the Islamic period) [104]. The ancient Marib Dam, one of the world’s earliest large-scale irrigation systems, was rebuilt during the early Islamic period under the leadership of local rulers, supported by Waqf endowments. The Waqf ensured the restoration of the dam, which supplied water to the surrounding highlands for agriculture and domestic use.
Waqf-Based Water Allocation in Fez (Morocco). Water Distribution System in Fez, supported by Waqf endowments in the 13th century during the Marinid Dynasty [105]. Fez was one of the most important Islamic cities in North Africa, and its extensive network of canals and aqueducts was funded and maintained through Waqf endowments. The water Waqf ensured that water was equitably distributed to mosques, public baths, homes, and agricultural lands in the city’s vicinity.
Water Waqf for the Agricultural Irrigation in the Egyptian Delta. Irrigation Networks in the Nile Delta, developed during the Fatimid Caliphate (10th–12th centuries) [106]. The Nile Delta’s irrigation system, essential for agriculture in Egypt, was supported by Waqf endowments under the Fatimids. These endowments funded the maintenance of irrigation canals and the construction of new waterways, ensuring the equitable distribution of water to agricultural lands.
Water Waqf and Irrigation in Valencia (Spain). Waqf-Supported Irrigation System in Valencia, developed during the Islamic rule in al-Andalus (10th century) [107]. The water Waqf system in Valencia regulated the construction and maintenance of the region’s complex irrigation networks, which included canals, dams, and reservoirs. The endowment provided for the equitable distribution of water to different agricultural lands, with specific Waqf charters outlining how water should be allocated based on crop needs and land size.
Water Waqf and Equitable Distribution in the Indian Subcontinent. Sultanate of Delhi Water Waqf Projects, during the reign of Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq (14th century) [108]. Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq established several water-related Waqf projects, including the construction of canals and stepwells (known as baolis) to ensure water supply to Delhi and its surrounding agricultural lands. These Waqfs provided water for both irrigation and domestic use, ensuring that the rural population and city dwellers had access to adequate water resources.
The Water Waqf System in Damascus (Syria). Ghuta Irrigation and Water Distribution System (built during the Umayyad and later developed by the Ayyubids and Mamluks) [109]. The Ghuta region surrounding Damascus was known for its advanced irrigation system, which was supported by several Waqf endowments. These Waqf-funded projects maintained canals that supplied water from the Barada River to the city’s gardens, homes, and farmlands.
Water Waqf and Canal Systems in Medina (Saudi Arabia). Bir al-Rumah (Well of Uthman), was established by Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (7th century CE) [110]. During the Prophet Muhammad’s time, Medina suffered from water shortages. A key water source, Bir al-Rumah, was privately owned, and its owner charged high prices. Uthman ibn Affan, one of the Prophet’s closest companions, purchased the well and endowed it as a Waqf, making the water free for all residents of Medina.
Water Waqf in the Saadian Dynasty of Marrakech (Morocco). Saadian Canal Networks and Waqf Endowments (16th century) [111]. The Saadian dynasty in Marrakech developed an extensive network of canals to irrigate the lands surrounding the city. These canals were maintained through Waqf endowments, ensuring that the water supply remained constant and available for agricultural and domestic use.
Water Waqf and Agricultural Irrigation in the Hejaz (Saudi Arabia). Irrigation Systems in Ta’if, were supported by Waqf endowments during the Abbasid Caliphate (8th–9th centuries) [112]. In the fertile region of Ta’if, near Mecca, Waqf endowments were established to develop and maintain irrigation channels that distributed water from natural springs to agricultural lands. These channels supported the growth of Ta’if’s famous fruit orchards and vineyards.
Waqf-Based Water Management in Istanbul (Turkey). Water Waqf in the Süleymaniye Complex, established by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century addressed or contributed to [113]. The Süleymaniye Mosque Complex in Istanbul was endowed with a Waqf that ensured the provision of water for the mosque, its associated public baths, soup kitchens, and surrounding gardens. Water was sourced from aqueducts that connected to the Belgrade Forest, and the Waqf funded their ongoing maintenance.
Water Waqf and Equitable Access in Lahore (Pakistan). Shahi Waqf for Water Supply and Fountains during the Mughal Empire (16th–17th centuries) [114] The Mughal rulers, including Emperor Akbar and Emperor Shah Jahan, established Waqf endowments to build and maintain water infrastructure in Lahore. These Waqf-funded projects included public fountains, water channels, and reservoirs that ensured access to clean water for the city’s residents.
2.11 Religious duty and social responsibility
Sabeels in Jerusalem. During Ottoman rule, sabeels (public water fountains) funded by Waqf provided free access to clean water for travelers and the poor. This fulfilled the religious obligation of charity (Sadaqah) and served the community’s needs [115].
Suleymaniye Complex, Istanbul. Part of the Waqf-supported Suleymaniye mosque complex, the water system provided not only for ritual ablution but also drinking water for the public, reinforcing Islamic values of charity and social responsibility [116].
Waqf in Fez, Morocco. The Chorfa Sabeel in Fez, established through Waqf, provided water for religious purposes and everyday needs, enhancing public welfare and fulfilling social duties [117].
Qayrawan, Tunisia. The Aghlabid Basins were constructed in the 9th century to provide water for the Great Mosque of Qayrawan. This ensured water for religious purposes, including ablution, as well as for public welfare. It exemplified the integration of religious obligations and community service [118].
Al-Azhar Waqf, Cairo, Egypt. Al-Azhar Mosque’s Waqf-supported water systems served not only the religious institution but also the local community by providing clean water for daily use and fulfilling the Islamic duty of charity [119].
Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria. The Umayyad Mosque had extensive Waqf-supported water infrastructure, including fountains and channels for ablution, which also served the community. It was a demonstration of the mosque’s central role in both religious and social life [120].
Bimaristan Water Waqfs, Aleppo, Syria. The water systems funded by Waqf in bimaristans (Islamic hospitals) in Aleppo were essential for public health and religious charity. These hospitals provided free treatment, aligning with the Islamic principle of helping the sick and needy[121].
Fez, Morocco. In Fez, the Sabeel water systems, funded by Waqf, provided clean water for religious schools (madrasas) and mosques. These projects contributed to the educational infrastructure, aligning with the Islamic emphasis on knowledge and public welfare [122].
2.12 Water Scarcity in Arid environment
Qanat Irrigation Systems in Iran. Waqf-supported qanats, underground aqueducts, in Iran helped transport water from mountains to arid regions for agriculture and urban use. These systems provided sustainable water supply in harsh climates [123].
Birkat al-Hajj (Pilgrim’s Reservoir) near Cairo, Egypt. Built in the 13th century, this Waqf-funded reservoir provided water for pilgrims traveling to Mecca across desert routes, addressing water scarcity in Egypt’s arid regions [124].
Water Waqf Systems in Al-Andalus (Spain). Islamic water Waqf projects in Al-Andalus, such as the Acequia de Aynadamar, ensured sustainable water flow to cities like Granada in dry regions, enhancing agriculture and daily living in arid zones [125].
Fountains in Ottoman Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire funded many Waqf projects for building fountains across Istanbul to provide clean drinking water to citizens. The Tophane Fountain, for instance, was established through Waqf to help address urban water needs in the city’s dry seasons [126].
The Sultan Ahmed Mosque Complex, Istanbul. As part of a larger charitable complex (külliye), the mosque included water fountains and a well system funded by Waqf, ensuring water availability for ablutions and daily use in a bustling, arid environment [127].
Al-Kasaba Aqueduct in Tunisia. Funded by Waqf, the Al-Kasaba aqueduct carried water from distant springs to the city of Kairouan. It mitigated water shortages in the arid North African climate [128].
Zubaydah Canal (Ain Zubaydah) in Mecca. Built in the 8th century, the Zubaydah Canal was financed through Waqf by Zubaydah, the wife of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. The project supplied water to pilgrims and residents of Mecca, a city surrounded by desert [129].
The Waqf System in Ottoman Turkey. The Süleymaniye Mosque Complex in Istanbul, was built by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century [130]. The complex included a large public fountain and a cistern to provide clean water to the community. This not only addressed the practical needs of the people but also symbolized the ruler’s commitment to the welfare of his subjects.
The Al-Khair Foundation’s Water Projects. The Al-Khair Foundation’s Water Projects in Africa and Asia, active in the 21st century [131]. The foundation through Waqf funds installs water wells, hand pumps, and water filtration systems in underserved areas, providing access to clean water which is crucial for health and development.
The Fountains of Cairo. The Historical Fountains of Cairo, particularly those established during the Mamluk period [132]. The fountains, often funded by Waqf endowments, provided free water to the public, embodying the Islamic principle of charity and public service. Many of these fountains were designed with intricate Islamic art and architecture, influencing both aesthetic and functional designs in the region.
The Qanats of Iran. Qanats in Iran, particularly those established during the early Islamic period[133]. Qanats are underground aqueducts designed to transport water from aquifers in highlands to lowlands for irrigation and drinking. This innovative system allowed for efficient water distribution over long distances and is a prime example of early hydrological engineering. This Waqf water project enabled agricultural development in arid regions, supporting the growth of crops and settlements.
The Hawa Trust’s Water Projects. Hawa Trust Water Projects in Bangladesh [134] The trust has funded the construction of numerous community wells and water purification systems in rural areas. In addition to providing clean water, the projects include educational programs on hygiene and water conservation.
The Madrasa of Al-Azhar, Cairo. The Madrasa of Al-Azhar in Cairo, established in the 10th century [135]: The institution included wells and water cisterns as part of its complex, providing water for both educational and public purposes. The endowment for maintaining these facilities was a significant part of the Waqf, reflecting the institution’s commitment to community welfare.
2.13 Development and maintenance of Large Scale Water Projects
Islamic water Waqf projects played a critical role in the development of large-scale water infrastructure, including aqueducts, canals, and dams, aimed at meeting the needs of growing urban populations, agriculture, and public institutions.
Qanat (Aqueduct) System in Persia (Iran). Qanats of Yazd, supported by Waqf endowments during the Abbasid and Seljuk periods (8th–11th centuries) [136]. The city of Yazd, located in an arid region of central Iran, depended on an extensive network of qanats (underground water channels) for its water supply. Many of these qanats were funded and maintained through Waqf endowments, which ensured the regular upkeep of these systems, crucial for the survival of the city’s population and agricultural lands.
The Aqueduct of Istanbul (Turkey). Bozdoğan (Valens) Aqueduct, was expanded and maintained through Waqf endowments during the Ottoman Empire (16th–17th centuries) [137]. The Valens Aqueduct was originally built by the Roman Emperor Valens in the 4th century, but during the Ottoman period, particularly under Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the aqueduct system was expanded and maintained through Waqf endowments. These Waqfs funded the repair and extension of the aqueduct, ensuring a constant flow of water to the rapidly growing city of Istanbul.
Water Waqf for Agricultural Irrigation in Egypt. Al-Mansuriya Canal, was constructed and maintained through Waqf endowments during the Fatimid and Mamluk periods (10th–14th centuries) [138]. The Al-Mansuriya Canal was a major irrigation project built to distribute water from the Nile River to the agricultural lands around Cairo. The canal system, supported by Waqf endowments, enabled the irrigation of vast tracts of farmland, ensuring food security for the growing population of Cairo.
Water Waqf for the Restoration of the Marib Dam (Yemen). Marib Dam Restoration, was supported by Waqf endowments during the early Islamic period (7th–8th centuries) [139]. The Marib Dam, originally built by the Sabaean Kingdom in pre-Islamic times, was a vital source of irrigation water for the agricultural lands of Yemen. After its partial destruction, Waqf endowments funded its restoration during the early Islamic period, ensuring the continued irrigation of the surrounding farmland.
Water Waqf in the Alhambra (Granada, Spain). Alhambra Water Supply System, supported by Waqf endowments during the Nasrid Dynasty (13th–15th centuries) [140]. The Alhambra complex in Granada relied on an intricate system of aqueducts, fountains, and cisterns to bring water from the nearby Sierra Nevada mountains. Waqf endowments were used to fund the construction and maintenance of this water supply system, ensuring that the palace, gardens, and public baths had a reliable water source.
Water Waqf for the Restoration of the Nahrawan Canal (Iraq). Nahrawan Canal Restoration, funded by Waqf during the Abbasid Caliphate (8th–9th centuries) [141]. The Nahrawan Canal, originally built during the Sassanid Empire, was restored and expanded during the Abbasid period through Waqf endowments. The canal brought water from the Tigris River to irrigate the agricultural lands around Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate.
Al-Ghouta Irrigation System (Damascus, Syria). Irrigation of Al-Ghouta, supported by Waqf endowments during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods (7th–9th centuries) [142]. The fertile Al-Ghouta region surrounding Damascus relied heavily on irrigation from the Barada River. Waqf endowments funded the construction and maintenance of the canal networks that distributed water from the river to the city and its surrounding agricultural lands. These irrigation systems were essential for sustaining agriculture, which provided food for the rapidly growing city.
Nahr Dawud Aqueduct (Jerusalem, Palestine). Nahr Dawud Aqueduct, was expanded and maintained by Waqf during the Mamluk and Ottoman periods (13th–16th centuries) [143]. The Nahr Dawud Aqueduct, which brought water from nearby springs to the city of Jerusalem, was expanded and maintained using Waqf endowments. This aqueduct was essential for providing water to the city’s public baths, fountains, and religious institutions, including the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock.
Fez River Project (Fez, Morocco). Fez River Irrigation and Public Infrastructure, supported by Waqf during the Marinid Dynasty (13th–14th centuries) [144]. The city of Fez depended heavily on the Fez River for its water supply. Waqf endowments funded the construction of a series of aqueducts and channels that directed water from the river to the city’s public institutions, including mosques, madrassas, and hospitals.
Shushtar Hydraulic System (Khuzestan, Iran). Shushtar Hydraulic System, expanded through Waqf in the early Islamic period (7th–9th centuries) [145]. Originally constructed in the Sassanid period, the Shushtar Hydraulic System was expanded and maintained during the early Islamic period using Waqf endowments. This large-scale water management system included canals, dams, bridges, and mills that utilized water from the Karun River to irrigate farmland and provide water to the city of Shushtar.
Samarra Irrigation Canals (Iraq). Samarra Irrigation Canals, funded by Waqf during the Abbasid Caliphate (9th century) [156]. During the Abbasid Caliphate, Samarra became the capital, and Waqf endowments were used to construct and maintain large irrigation canals that diverted water from the Tigris River to support the city’s agriculture. These canals provided irrigation for the surrounding farmland, which was vital for feeding the capital’s population.
3. Conclusion and Discussion
The practice of the Islamic Waqf for the implementation of various water projects over more than fourteen centuries is a unique Muslim characteristic and has led to learning the following lessons and concluding remarks:
Throughout Islamic history and in all its locations, Muslims have continuously endowed water projects to serve Muslims and improving their life welfare, health, and environment.
Waqf water projects extended and served almost in all water sector fields from small water public fountains to large agricultural aqueducts and canals.
Although proved successful, Waqf water project are facing many challenges and need serious reforms to sustain. Among these obstacles and challenges are the State’s control over the management of endowment institutions, the lack of change and development in these institutions, as well as the lack of promotion of water projects.
Waqf projects supported advancements in irrigation and urban water supply, addressing both agricultural and domestic needs.
Waqf water projects balanced and harmonized the relationship between religion, charity, and sustainable development.
Waqf water projects proved efficient along with helping in in improving water infrastructure and providing equal access to water, particularly for the poor and marginalized and at the same time improving city aesthetics and the environment and need to be supported and continued.
The present study highlighted that a large number of waqf water projects were executed throughout Muslim history and civilization.
The endowment of water projects and since the time of the Prophet and through the ages until the present has been credited with increasing the provision of water, developing its sources, and developing sophisticated and equitable mechanisms for managing and distributing water, ensuring that this essential resource was shared fairly among all members of the community, and protecting the environment.
Waqf water projects throughout history were key to long-term community welfare, supporting water infrastructure, Waqf education, and protecting the environment and improving healthcare.
Understanding the historical context of institutional and administrative developments, challenges, and reforms in Islamic Waqf water projects is essential for shaping their future role in sustainable water management.
Understanding the specifics of Waqf governance provides insights into the diverse historical trajectories and contemporary practices governing these charitable endowments.
The water Waqf system integrated the practical use of water with the beautification of Islamic cities, creating spaces that were not only functional but also aesthetically pleasing.
Water Waqf projects not only improved access to clean water but also directly contributed to community welfare and public health by preventing waterborne diseases and promoting hygiene.
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[129] Gabrieli, F. (1969). The Muslim Pilgrimage. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, pp. 20-100.
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[134] ibid, Hawa Trust. (2023). Annual Report 2023. Dhaka: Hawa Trust, p. 10.
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[137] ibid, Gülru, N. (2005). The Age of Sinan. Princeton University Press, p. 60.
[138]ibid, Mikhail, A. (2011). Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt. Cambridge University Press, pp. 75-80.
[139] ibid, Dresch, P. (1993). Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen. Oxford University Press, pp. 45-50.
[140] Grabar, O. (1978). The Alhambra. Harvard University Press, pp. 20-70.
[141] ibid, Kennedy, H. (1981). The Early Abbasid Caliphate. Croom Helm, pp. 50-55.
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[143] Cohen, A. (1989). Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press, pp. 60-140.
[144] Le Tourneau, R. (1978). Fez in the Age of the Marinids. University of Oklahoma Press, pp. 35-100.
[145] Christensen, P. (2013). The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environment in the Late Antique and Early Islamic Middle East. I.B. Tauris, pp. 50-150.
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