The Great Physician Historian During the Golden Islamic Medical History – Ibn Abi Usaybi’aa
by Husain F. Nagamia
One of the most salient facets of Islamic architecture is its intricate decoration, which envelops building surfaces with symmetrical patterns and elaborate designs. These surfaces end up resembling carpets or – to quote Ibn Khaldun who dwelled in his “Muqaddimah” on architecture as the first and oldest craft of sedentary civilization – like “colorful flower...
Tiles with some calligraphy in the courtyard of the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul (Turkiye) (Source)
One of the most salient facets of Islamic architecture is its intricate decoration, which envelops building surfaces with symmetrical patterns and elaborate designs. These surfaces end up resembling carpets or – to quote Ibn Khaldun who dwelled in his “Muqaddimah” on architecture as the first and oldest craft of sedentary civilization – like “colorful flower beds.”[1]
Starting from the later period of the Umayyad caliphate, each and every Muslim polity took pleasure in exploring a wide range of decorative themes and materials. It is often mentioned that the Ottomans were known for their elaborate architectural decoration. However, they were not alone in this practice. Emphasizing decoration to enhance the structural, artistic and functional aspects of buildings was a common trait among all stakeholders in Muslim civilization, including the Ottomans.
The core objective of a Muslim’s existence involves both recognizing and cherishing the all-encompassing beauty that surrounds him, while also striving to cultivate his own form of beauty, as prescribed by the teachings of Islam. According to Islamic beliefs, individuals are inherently beautiful, meant to admire beauty, live beautifully, and leave a legacy of beauty behind.
Detail of arabesque decoration at the Alhambra in Spain (Source)
The standard for such a lifestyle is based on the words of the Prophet that Allah is beautiful and loves beauty. The greatest anomaly, logically speaking, is ugliness, the highest manifestation of which is conceit manifested most conspicuously in disdaining the truth out of narcissism and any other debased motive, and in contempt for people.[2] The Prophet also said that Allah is Good (Tayyib) and accepts only that which is good.[3]
The earth and life on it are blessings and embellishments from God, the prohibition of which by anybody and for whatever reason is a serious offence. Muslims’ innovation of beautiful things, including in the field of the built environment – while avoiding excesses and dishonesty – is intended to be an extension of this fundamental blueprint. The Qur’an reminds:
“Say: ‘Who has forbidden the adornment of Allah which He has produced for His servants and the good (lawful) things of provision?’ Say: ‘They are for those who believe during the worldly life (but) exclusively for them on the Day of Resurrection.’ Thus do We detail the verses for a people who know” (al-A’raf 32).
In his work “Treatise on Love,” Ibn Sina (d. 1037) – influenced by the Islamic worldview – explored how the feelings of love and admiration for beauty are inherent in every individual and how these emotions peak and find their highest expression in connection with the Almighty God as the Absolute Good (Beauty) and First Cause.[4] Ibn Sina said:
“It is part of the nature of beings endowed with reason to covet a beautiful sight, and that this is sometimes – certain conditions granted – to be considered as refinement and nobility.”
Moreover, loving a beautifully pleasing form with an intellectual consideration, rather than animal desires, is an approximation of graciousness and an increase in goodness.
This wisdom of Ibn Sina is further elucidated by the ideas of Ibn al-Haytham (d. 1040), who extensively discussed the perception and appreciation of beauty in his encyclopedic work called “The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham.” According to Ibn al-Haytham, beauty resides in the soul, and a form is considered beautiful when it evokes an effect in the soul that makes it perceive and recognize it as beautiful.[5] However, understanding the nature of the soul suggests that the more refined, intelligible, moral and spiritual a form and its associated object are, the more beautiful and appealing they become. Therefore, the mere physical aspects mark the starting point of beauty’s trajectory of self-affirmation, with its ultimate destination and climax being the realm of the soul.
Generative image of scholars from the Golden Age of Islam (Source)
To Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111), the role of the soul, as merely hinted at by Ibn Sina and clearly emphasized by Ibn al-Haytham, is compared to a sixth sense. He uses this analogy to clarify how the material and immaterial, the physical and metaphysical, interact within the provinces of love and beauty, aiming to facilitate human happiness.
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali said in “The Alchemy of Happiness”:
“Love may be defined as an inclination to that which is pleasant. This is apparent in the case of the five senses, each of which may be said to love that which gives it delight; thus the eye loves beautiful forms, the ear music, etc. This is a kind of love we share with the animals. But there is a sixth sense, or faculty of perception, implanted in the heart, which animals do not possess, through which we become aware of spiritual beauty and excellence. Thus, a man who is only acquainted with sensuous delights cannot understand what the Prophet meant when he said he loved prayer more than perfumes or women, though the last two were also pleasant to him. But he whose inner eye is opened to behold the beauty and perfection of God will despise all outward sights in comparison, however fair they may be. The former kind of man will say that beauty resides in red-and-white complexions, well-proportioned limbs, and so forth, but he will be blind to moral beauty, such as men refer to when they speak of such and such a man as possessing a ‘beautiful’ character. But those possessed of inner perception find it quite possible to love the departed great, such as the Caliphs Omar and Abu Bakr, on account of their noble qualities, though their bodies have long been mingled with the dust. Such love is directed not towards any outward form, but towards (the permanent beauty of) the inner character.”[6]
Decoration was generally of two kinds: informative and contemplative. Calligraphy was the primary method used for informative decoration, which included five variations: Qur’anic verses, pious poetry, pearls of spiritual wisdom, enlightening inscriptions, and medallions featuring the names of Allah, the Prophet and his chosen companions. On the other hand, contemplative decoration involved geometric shapes, symmetrical patterns, muqarnas resembling stalactites, floral designs, and the skillful use of colors, shades and light either individually or in combination with the aforementioned elements. It was uncommon for informative or contemplative decoration to be used independently; instead, they were frequently combined in various arabesque designs, ranging from simple to intricate.
The domes, vaults, qiblah walls, mihrabs, iwans, minbars, niches, archways, pillars and portals were the most embellished features of Islamic architecture seen in institutional structures, particularly mosques. Decoration was commonly seen inside these buildings, but not limited to it. Exteriors were also frequently adorned. The more internally-focused a building, like baths, schools, Sufi lodges, inns, caravanserais and tombs, the more elaborate its interior decoration. Houses, being private sanctuaries, were an exception to this rule. Their decoration was primarily concentrated indoors. Decorative elements were evenly distributed in guest areas, promoting hospitality, while in private sections of houses, they offered personal enjoyment for residents.
One aim of decoration was to elevate architecture spiritually by removing naturalistic and humanistic elements, aiming to prevent it from following the pitfalls that some other previous architectural styles had fallen into.
Great Mosque of Cordoba, interior, 8th – 10th centuries (38). “The effect of two sets of arches is mesmerizing, especially so because the white stone arches are banded with red brick” — Witold Rybczynski, The Story of Architecture (Source)
Islamic architecture used elaborate decoration to hide human interventions in space and encourage contemplation of the Creator. This approach aimed to emphasize the insignificance of humans compared to the greatness of God, highlighting the dependency of creation on the Creator’s sovereignty. In Islamic architecture, architects carefully navigate the concept that humans do not create buildings but rather utilize the resources provided by their Creator. Buildings reflect man’s utilization, processing and management of the gifts bestowed upon him, such as talents, physical and cognitive abilities, and resources. Ultimately, it is acknowledged that God is the sole Creator who can create things out of nothing (ex nihilo) and without relying on any previous examples. Man is only metaphorically referred to as a creator.
Man is but a processor, maker (manufacturer) and user. Buildings are decorated in such a way and quantity as needed for coming to terms with these verities. A building user should be induced to remember God rather than man, and this is where the most critical educational aspect of decoration is brought to the forefront. He should have the foresight to look beyond the physical appearance of buildings, connecting with the Creator of the universe instead. The words from the Qur’an:
“But Allah has created you and your handwork (what you do or make)!” (al-Saffat 96),
This should echo in the minds and hearts of building users, permeating and resonating within the buildings themselves.
Calligraphy, with its striking and familiar quotes that resonate with most people, regardless of their knowledge of Arabic, serves to educate and inspire through the words of God, the Prophet, religious poetry and wise sayings. Understanding the origins, meanings and purposes of the calligraphic texts used makes it easy for individuals to feel a personal connection. This connection can then motivate them to pay attention and reflect on how the messages relate to their own lives and actions. It is often noted that calligraphy in Islamic architecture had three main benefits: enhancing beauty, providing guidance and offering education. That being said. it is reasonable to believe that Islamic decorative calligraphy played a role in promoting frequent bilingualism and high literacy rates in Islamic civilization.
Abstract decoration with intricate arabesques symbolizes order, symmetry and proportion in both theory and practice. Arabesques are almost synonymous with Islamic decorative patterns and ornaments, reflecting the Islamic aversion to naturalistic and representational art. These two styles are fundamentally different, with one leaning towards the spiritual realm and the other towards the material world.
Abstract geometric designs – especially when combined with calligraphic messages – are otherworldly in purpose and meaning. They represent the spiritual tenets of propriety, equity, infinitude, ubiquity, unity, tranquility, equilibrium and splendor. These tenets denote the deepest aspirations of humanity, but none can be fully realized when someone is restricted to the confines of purely material existence. Nonrepresentational designs act as gateways for individuals to transition from the physical to the metaphysical realm. They beckon towards themselves and are capable of facilitating the “rites of passage.” They are dubbed nonrepresentational or nonfigurative because they do not symbolize any actual or natural objects or realities from our everyday life.
Life’s offerings serve as a platform for aiming higher and exploring new dimensions. Abstract geometric designs have the power to awaken a heavenly aspect within humans, reminding them of their origin and ultimate destination. When individuals engage with these designs, they often experience a sense of elation and connection to the beauty – and counsels – they exude. It is through appropriate decorative systems, particularly in the built environment, that people are reminded of the transient nature of this world and the potential traps it holds. In line with Plato’s belief that beauty is the splendor of truth, beauty and truth are intricately linked, representing two sides of the same coin.[7]
Interior side view of the main dome of the Selimiye Mosque (Edirne, Turkey)(Source)
All Muslim scholars who theorized about Islamic aesthetics agreed that organization, order and symmetry were essential for beauty. Ibn Sina, for example, said that both the rational and the animal soul – the latter by reason of its proximity to the former – invariably love what has beauty of order, composition and harmony.[8] This is particularly the case when aesthetics is utilized in the pursuit of loftier spiritual and moral goals.
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali further elaborated as follows:
“The heart of man has been so constituted by the Almighty that, like a flint, it contains a hidden fire which is evoked by music[9] and harmony, and renders man beside himself with ecstasy. These harmonies are echoes of that higher world of beauty which we call the world of spirits; they remind man of his relationship to that world, and produce in him an emotion so deep and strange that he himself is powerless to explain it. The effect of music and dancing is deeper in proportion as the natures on which they act are simple and prone to emotion; they fan into a flame whatever love is already dormant in the heart, whether it be earthly and sensual, or divine and spiritual.”[10]
What’s more, Ibn al-Haytham discussed the different types of beauty that the sense of sight can perceive from visible objects. He focused on optics as the study of light and its interactions with matter, exploring how forms can create beauty and have a profound impact on the soul. When one studies Ibn al-Haytham’s ideas, one can discern that every part of his thoughts on beauty perception has been fully incorporated into Islamic aesthetics, especially through architectural decoration. This attests to the advanced and sophisticated nature of Islamic decorative arts from their inception, as well as the valuable contribution made by Ibn al-Haytham to authenticate and advance these arts. Additionally, it highlights how Islamic decorative arts have benefited from a scientific perspective, as Ibn al-Haytham is recognized as the pioneer of the scientific method. By utilizing his book “The Optics” to validate his groundbreaking ideas, the credibility of Ibn al-Haytham’s concepts was further strengthened with a touch of Islamic spirituality.
To Ibn al-Haytham, the kinds of beauty that sight perceives from the forms of visible objects are many and their causes are the variety of properties found in those forms.
“Sight perceives each one of the properties in each one of the forms singly, and it perceives them in composition, and perceives their conjunction and harmony. It therefore perceives beauty in various ways, all of which reduce to perception of the particular properties.”[11]
The following are the single, composed and harmonized properties found in forms that can generate beauty to the perception of the sense of sight: light, color, distance, position, solidity, shape, size, separateness, continuity, quantity, motion, consequence, roughness, smoothness, transparency, opacity, shadow, darkness, familiarity and unfamiliarity. However, Ibn al-Haytham at the same time underlined that not all properties create beauty in every situation or in every form they appear, but they may be more effective in certain forms than in others.[12]
That’s where the importance of objective consequentiality and spirituality comes in, as art should combine subjective talents and preferences with objective authorization and guidance. Beauty then lies in combining different properties, focusing on both similarities and dissimilarities to create perceptions of orderliness, proportionality and harmony, which the soul cherishes above all else.[13] With numerous options to choose from, it’s not surprising that Islamic decorative arts have always been seen as fluid and boundless. This characteristic is evident in every masterpiece of Islamic art and architecture throughout history and even in contemporary times. There existed copious artistic paths that all led to a singular utmost aim: the exaltation of God and acceptance of His supreme authority.
Ilkhanid piece in silk, cotton and gold, Iran or Iraq, early 14th century (Source)
Gülru Necipoglu, The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire (Princeton University Press, 2005). An historical and sociological tour de force, an authority in the study of Sinān and of Islamic art and architecture. (Source)
Perhaps the most emblematic of this outlook were the words of Mimar Sinan (d. 1588), the chief architect of the Ottoman Empire during its golden age. In one of his biographies, he wrote that upon the completion of the Sulaymaniya mosque in Istanbul, the most competent artists were hired to ornament and decorate every corner of the mosque. The artistic aspects of the mosque were so refined that only men of talent, from beginning to end, would be able to understand all the arts manifested in it.[14]
The highlight was the central dome that functioned like the center of the mosque’s architectural, engineering and artistic gravity. Mimar Sinan likened it to the “revolving heavens.” The other smaller domes he perceived as supplementary ornaments appearing like the “bubbles of the sea of elegance.” To adorn the central dome – and the rest of the mosque -the renowned artist and calligrapher Hasan Celebi Karahisari was commissioned. Mimar Sinan referred to him as the qiblah of the calligraphers.[15]
Since the central dome was a marvel and was a precursor to the dome of the Selimiye mosque in Edirne, where Mimar Sinan succeeded in surpassing the monumental dome of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul in size and grandeur, it needed to be one-of-a-kind. This uniqueness was evident in transforming the interior of the dome into a large and intricate arabesque design that covers the entire interior space of the dome. At the core of the dome’s arabesque design, there is a central motif that acts as the foundation of the overall arabesque pattern. Surrounding this central motif is a band featuring a superb calligraphic inscription, creating a ring around it. The inscription reads:
“In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. Indeed, Allah holds the heavens and the earth, lest they cease. And if they should cease, no one could hold them (in place) after Him. Indeed, He is Forbearing and Forgiving” (Fatir 41)
According to Mimar Sinan, this verse of the Qur’an was deliberately selected.[16] For the heavenly dome, a Qur’anic verse that encapsulates the fundamental nature of the heavens and the earth (the universe) was chosen. The selection aimed to convey the idea that no matter how talented or accomplished a person may be, he can never come close to replicating the magnificent creations of God. Human abilities and achievements are solely due to the grace and providence of the Creator. There can never be a comparison or challenge to God’s supremacy. Eventually, man will have to recognize the power of the Creator and his own limitations. This acknowledgement is often most evident in architecture, where humans adhere strictly to the natural laws established by God. All human thoughts, actions and creations are subject to God’s provisions and rules, leading to the realization that their ultimate fate also rests in God’s hands.
The dome of the Sulaymaniya mosque signified the climax of the construction process. It was a high point, both conceptually and literally. Nevertheless, the entire mosque was crafted with the same level of structural and spiritual excellence, making it a matchless masterpiece. Mimar Sinan said that as experts, master craftsmen were cognizant of the quality of the mosque. They could easily discern that such works were rare, for the mosque was the product of maximum dedication and exertion, and was to endure “as long as the spheres revolve.” About other parts of the mosque, Mimar Sinan said:
“And he (the mentioned chief calligrapher) sought out suitable texts for the inscriptions of each of its paradise-like doors and wrote many heart-attracting inscriptions. And stone carvers and decorators wrote and dated them on the pages of time. With them, they became famous and renowned and carved their names on marble panels.”[17]
When Islamic buildings are constructed and decorated in the above-explained manner, they present themselves as signs (ayat), operating alongside the prevalent natural signs (ayat) of God. Islamic belief holds that everything in the universe serves as a sign, reflecting the presence, greatness and benevolence of God. These signs are evident and impactful, whether in the smallest or largest of creations. The Qur’an also brings out that all animate and inanimate entities continuously worship and praise God (al-Ra’d 15; al-Saff 1; al-Jumu’ah 1). Thus, when Islamic structures are built to meet the same objectives, they too become both instruments and places of worship. Just as the entire universe is considered a place of worship, so are Islamic buildings.
In the ontological sense of the word, Islamic architecture is an extension of the universal spiritual paradigm. This concept aligns with the Qur’an’s recognition that even ships, which are the product of human ingenuity in general, function as a sign on earth (al-Baqarah 164). If this applies to human ships, it is even more applicable to Islamic architecture. Islamic architecture is designed to fulfil specific spiritual and ethical needs – while adhering to the physical laws ordained by God – as well as those needs that are related to society and culture, but which are entrenched in the former.
If the built environment is both aesthetically pleasing and functional, it can help suppress animal instincts in people, reducing negative behaviors linked to those instincts. Additionally, a well-designed built environment can stimulate intellectual and spiritual thoughts, promoting goodness and enhancing individuals’ sense of self-worth. The built environment serves as a constant backdrop to life, and when it embodies virtuous qualities, it acts as a counterbalance to immortality. In essence, a virtuous built environment functions like a billboard promoting righteousness and moral values.
Moreover, when within the context of a worthy built environment the lower and higher degrees of being united, propelled by the union of the lower and higher faculties of the soul – to use the lexicon of Ibn Sina[18] – the lower degrees (faculties) intuit inferiority and begin to feel the need to align with the qualities of the higher degrees (faculties). Consequently, the lower faculties will gradually transform and start to experience the impact of experiential civility and spiritual excellence. The crux of this process is highlighted in the final verse of chapter al-‘Alaq in the Qur’an, where Allah instructs the Prophet and Muslims to ignore unworthy matters and individuals, and instead, devote themselves only to Allah and strive to draw closer to Him continuously:
“No! Do not obey him. But prostrate and draw near (to Allah)” (al-‘Alaq 19)
[1] Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, translated from Arabic by Franz Rosenthal, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), vol. 2 p. 516.
[2] Muslim, Sahih Muslim, Book 1, Hadith No. 171.
[3] Al-Tirmidhi, Jami’ al-Tirmidhi, Book 47, Hadith No. 41.
[4] Ibn Sina, Treatise of Love, translated by Emil L. Fackenheim, Mediaeval Studies, 1945, Vol. 7, pp. 208-228, https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170604863, accessed on July 28, 2024.
[5] Ibn al-Haytham, The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, translated by A.I. Sabra, (London: University of London, 1989), p. 200.
[6] Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, translated by Claud Field , (n.p.: Global Grey, 2018), https://www.globalgreyebooks.com/alchemy-of-happiness-ebook.html, accessed on July 28, 2024, p. 35.
[7] G. M. A. Grube, “Plato’s Theory of Beauty,” inside: The Monist, Volume 37, Issue 2, 1 April 1927, pp. 269–288,
[8] Ibn Sina, Treatise of Love, p. 15.
[9] No wonder that architecture is often described as frozen music, and that music is regarded as a form of art due to its ability to provoke strong emotions in listeners.
[10] Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, p. 26.
[11] Ibn al-Haytham, The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, p. 200.
[12] Ibid., pp. 200-206.
[13] Ibid., p. 204.
[14] Mimar Sinan, Sinan’s Autobiographies – Five Sixteenth-Century Texts, translated and edited by Howard Crane and Esra Akin, (Leiden: Brill, 2006), p. 122.
[15] Ibid., p. 124.
[16] Ibid., p. 124.
[17] Ibid., p. 124.
[18] Ibn Sina, Treatise of Love, p. 12.
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