Approaches Used by Muslims to Allocate and Distribute Water Among Users and Sectors Throughout History

This article explores the diverse and historically rooted approaches used by Muslim communities to allocate and distribute water among various users and sectors, drawing upon Islamic principles, communal traditions, and evolving legal frameworks to balance equitable access and resource sustainability. Guided by Islamic principles (Sharia), communities prioritized shared ownership and fairness, utilizing methods like communal allocation and the Hima system to conserve water. Structured rotational and quota systems provided scheduled access, while royal oversight centralized resources for broader public benefit. Economic water markets and trade emerged alongside legal tribunals, which protected rights through Islamic legal systems. Traditional practices within tribal societies emphasized customary rights, while modern international agreements now govern transboundary water sources. Public-private partnerships and waqf (charitable endowments) demonstrate collaborative resource management. These historical approaches provide insights into adaptive, ethical water allocation for regions facing scarcity today.

Figure 1. Nasride Palace – La Alhambra de Granada Spain Andalousia (Wikimedia)

Introduction

Figure 2. “Design for the Water Clock of the Peacocks”, from the Kitab fi ma’rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya (Book of the Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices) by Badi’ al-Zaman b. al Razzaz al-Jazari (Wikimedia)

Water, as a fundamental and finite resource, has always been central to the development, sustenance, and survival of human civilizations. Its scarcity in many regions of the world, particularly in the arid and semi-arid landscapes where many early Islamic civilizations flourished, made the effective management and fair distribution of water a critical challenge. Throughout history, Muslim societies developed intricate and sophisticated systems for the allocation of water, which not only ensured equitable access but also reflected broader ethical, social, and religious values. These approaches to water distribution were often rooted in a combination of Islamic legal principles, local customs, and environmental considerations, creating systems that aimed to be just, sustainable, and practical [1].

The significance of water in Islamic civilization cannot be overstated. In Islamic teachings, water is described as a divine gift and a symbol of purity, playing a central role in both spiritual and daily life. The Quran and Hadith emphasize water as a shared resource, one that should be preserved and used responsibly. For instance, the Prophet Muhammad stated, “The people are partners in three things: water, pasture, and fire (or energy)” [2], emphasizing that water should be available to all. Islamic law (Sharia) provided a comprehensive framework for water management, focusing on justice, communal rights, and environmental stewardship. This legal foundation was supplemented by local customs (Al-Maarouf), often developed in response to specific geographic and climatic conditions [3].

Historically, Muslim approaches to water distribution were shaped by the diversity of landscapes they inhabited and the unique challenges posed by varying environmental conditions. In the arid regions of the Arabian Peninsula, for example, the scarcity of water led to the creation of systems like the qanat (underground water channels) and aflaj (irrigation networks) to ensure that every drop was utilized efficiently [4]. In contrast, in regions such as Andalusia (Islamic Spain) and the Nile Valley, where water sources like rivers were more abundant, large-scale public works were constructed to regulate and distribute water to farms, cities, and public spaces. These systems were often managed by local communities, government officials, or religious authorities, and the allocation of water was based on intricate systems of time-shares, land ownership, and communal rights [5].

One of the most defining characteristics of Islamic water distribution systems was their grounding in religious and moral obligations. In Islam, water is regarded as a communal right, and its use is subject to the principle of Maslaha (public interest). The legal maxim “water is for everyone” reflects the belief that water cannot be hoarded or monopolized by any individual or group at the expense of others [6]. Water rights were codified in Islamic jurisprudence, with clear guidelines on who had the right to use water, under what circumstances, and how disputes should be resolved. Sharia law placed a priority on the essential uses of water—drinking for humans and animals, followed by irrigation, sanitation, and industrial use. This framework not only helped resolve conflicts but also fostered cooperation in managing shared resources [7].

In addition to legal frameworks, customary and community-based practices played a crucial role in water management across the Muslim world. In many rural areas, water distribution was handled by local councils or village elders, who mediated disputes and enforced traditional water-sharing arrangements. These practices were often tailored to the specific needs and circumstances of each community. For example, the Haq al-Shirb (right of water use) system in Yemen allocated water based on timed rotations, ensuring that even in times of scarcity, each farmer would receive a fair share of water for irrigation [8]. Similarly, in Morocco’s Atlas Mountains, water was distributed through decisions made by Jma’a (Group) councils, reflecting a strong communal ethic and a deep understanding of local hydrology[9].

The role of state and empire in water management also played a significant role. Throughout history, Muslim rulers invested heavily in the construction and maintenance of water infrastructure. The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) is known for its extensive irrigation systems in Mesopotamia, which helped transform the region into a fertile agricultural hub [10]. In the Ottoman Empire, state-sponsored construction of public fountains and aqueducts in cities like Istanbul and Cairo demonstrated the importance of water not only for survival but also for religious and civic life. Water distribution in these empires was often centralized, with officials overseeing the equitable allocation of water for public use, agriculture, and industry, while also ensuring that water infrastructure was maintained and expanded [11].

This article will explore the various approaches employed by Muslims to distribute water among users and sectors throughout history, examining the intersection of religious principles, legal frameworks, local customs, and environmental adaptations. By analyzing specific case studies from different regions and periods, such as the qanat systems of Iran, the norias (water wheels) of Syria, and the sophisticated irrigation networks of Andalusia, we will gain a deeper understanding of how Islamic societies managed their most precious resource [12]. Furthermore, the article will highlight the enduring relevance of these historical approaches in modern water management, particularly in the context of growing water scarcity and environmental challenges in the Muslim world today [13].

In sum, the approaches used by Muslims to distribute water throughout history were as diverse as the environments they lived in, yet they were unified by a common ethical framework rooted in Islamic teachings. Whether through formal legal codes, communal management, or state-sponsored infrastructure, these systems reflect a rich legacy of sustainable and equitable water management that continues to inspire contemporary efforts to address the global water crisis.

Figure 3. Norias of Hama, Syria (Wikimedia)

Water Allocation Through Muslim History

Figure 4. Water fountain (Sabil) at Mausoleum of Mohammed V, Rabat (Wikimedia)

Muslim civilizations have developed various systems and approaches to allocate/distribute water among users and sectors, based on environmental needs, societal structures, and available technology. For such water supply, they used groundwater, spring, surface runoff, and river waters through open and closed canals, piles, water wheels, and pumps. Many of the water allocation systems were deeply influenced by religious, legal, and cultural norms.

The various systems and approaches developed by Muslims to allocate/distribute water among users and sectors relate, on the other hand, to how Muslims throughout history dealt with and controlled water scarcity and stress informed by Islamic legal and ethical frameworks. By implementing thoughtful and adaptive water allocation and distribution practices, water managers can alleviate scarcity and stress, ensuring that water remains available, accessible, and equitably distributed across communities and sectors.

The water allocation approaches used and practiced throughout Muslim history adapting to geographical, environmental, and social conditions, and listed below, sometimes overlap each other and can be intervened under more than one approach.

1. Islamic Approach (Sharia), Shared Water Ownership, Fairness in Allocation, and Equitable Access

In Islamic law, water is considered a precious and communal shared resource,  granted by Allah and its allocation and use are guided by principles of justice, equity, and sustainability and is determined by need, particularly in terms of basic domestic requirements like drinking, cooking, and cleaning. Water sharing has been a vital practice in Islamic societies throughout history, reflecting Islamic legal, social, and ethical norms regarding the equitable and fair use of water resources. Islamic faith emphasizes that water is essential for life, purity, and worship, making it not only a physical resource but also a spiritual one.These practices and principles are derived from the Quran and Sunnah, which emphasize the communal and just use of natural resources, including water. Agricultural water needs were secondary to domestic needs in water-scarce environments. This principle of need-based allocation is derived from Islamic jurisprudence, where water for survival always takes precedence [14,15].

• During the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE), Islamic legal principles were applied to the allocation of water, particularly in cities like Damascus. The administration ensured the equitable distribution of water from the Barada River, with mosques and public baths having priority based on Sharia. Access to water was also considered a communal right, essential for human survival, and blocking access was seen as a violation of Islamic law [16].
• Principle of Shared Ownership: Water is considered a common resource (mubah) in Islamic law, meaning it is a shared good and not privately owned. Water allocation is determined by need, particularly in terms of basic domestic requirements like drinking, cooking, and cleaning. Agricultural needs were secondary to domestic needs in water-scarce environments. The Prophet Muhammad emphasized that “people are partners in three things: water, pasture, and fire” (Hadith), indicating that water should be freely available to all [17].  In addition,According to the Prophet Muhammad’s teachings, water for drinking and personal use must be freely available to all, regardless of status or wealth. This led to the development of public wells and fountains, particularly in cities such as Cairo and Damascus, where people could access water according to their basic needs. Farmers and others requiring water for commercial purposes could access it, but only after domestic needs were met [18].
• Prohibition of Hoarding and Monopoly: Islamic law prohibits monopolizing water sources, particularly in times of scarcity. Preventing others from accessing water or hoarding it for personal gain is seen as unjust and contrary to communal welfare [19].
• In the Sawahil region along the East African coast, water was traditionally managed by local chiefs or elders who used Islamic customary laws to distribute water from wells and rivers. The chiefs would mediate disputes and ensure that all members of the community had access to water during both wet and dry seasons [20].
• Water Sharing in the Gardens of Alhambra (Islamic Spain): The gardens of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain, feature an intricate water-sharing system that reflects Islamic principles of resource management. The water from the Darro River was shared through a network of canals and pools that irrigated both public and private gardens in the Alhambra. Water was carefully allocated based on schedules and rights established by local officials. The irrigation system was designed to distribute water fairly, ensuring that no one monopolized the resource. This practice was rooted in the Islamic tradition of responsible stewardship of natural resources [21].
• Water Allocation in Medina (Prioritization of Essential Uses). During the time of the Prophet Muhammad, water allocation in the city of Medina was managed by considering water as a right and the needs of the community for drinking and personal use first. Wells were a primary water source, and their usage was allocated based on essential needs. For instance, when the Prophet purchased the Bi’r Ruma well from a companion, he declared it a public water source, ensuring that anyone in need could draw water, especially for drinking. Only after these basic needs were fulfilled could water be used for irrigation or commercial purposes [22].
• In Safavid Persia (1501–1736), Islamic law played a role in regulating water rights, particularly in rural areas. Each village had its own Mirab (watermaster) who ensured fair distribution of water based on Islamic principles of justice. Water from rivers and qanats (underground aqueducts) was allocated in accordance with local traditions and Islamic jurisprudence, ensuring equal access during periods of scarcity [23].
• During the Mamluk period (1250–1517), Islamic legal principles guided the management of the Nile’s water resources. The Hisba (market inspector) was responsible for overseeing public resources, including water, to prevent any monopolization or illegal diversion of water from public streams and wells[24].

Figure 5. Islamic City of Balat (Balat Old City), Dakhla Oasis in Egypt. It is an integrated archaeological city dating back to the Ottoman era. It was built in a high place to avoid the danger of underground water, to adapt to the extreme heat of the continental climates, and also to defend the city against the attacks of its enemies. This name was named because it was the seat of the royal court during the Ottoman period. (Wikimedia)

 2. Water Allocation by Communal Management

• Water Sharing Through the Saqiya System in Egypt (Fatimid Period): In Fatimid Egypt (10th–12th century), water from the Nile River was managed communally, with sophisticated irrigation systems like the saqiya (waterwheel) being used to lift water into canals that fed agricultural lands. Seasonal flooding from the Nile was crucial, and the government helped regulate water-sharing to ensure everyone had access during critical agricultural seasons.  Villages along the Nile had specific water quotas, and local officials oversaw the distribution to ensure fairness. Water-sharing agreements ensured that even during low-flow periods, vital agricultural areas received sufficient water for crop cultivation [25].
• Acequia Water Sharing in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain): In Al-Andalus, particularly in cities like Cordoba and Valencia, the acequia system was a model of water-sharing that was developed under Islamic rule. Water from rivers was diverted into irrigation canals that supplied fields and urban areas. The community-based system ensured equitable distribution based on need according to pre-established schedules, with local qadis (judges) and water councils overseeing water rights.  Disputes were resolved by the Tribunal de las Aguas, a water court that ensured fairness in water access. This system allowed Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities in the city to share water resources in a highly structured manner [26].
• Water Sharing in Ottoman Syria (16th Century): In Ottoman Syria, especially in agricultural regions like the Hauran, water-sharing agreements were formalized between communities. Seasonal flooding from rivers was managed collectively to irrigate fields, and local councils worked to prevent conflict over water resources by organizing shared use.  Each village had water-sharing schedules, and times of irrigation were divided equitably based on the size of landholdings and crop needs. The Ottoman government also intervened in times of drought, ensuring that villages downstream received their share of water [27]
• Water Sharing in the Khettara System in Morocco: The khettara system, an ancient irrigation method still used in parts of Morocco, is a prime example of communal water sharing. It was likely introduced to Morocco during the Islamic expansion in the 7th and 8th centuries CE. Early Moroccan societies adapted this system to harness water from underground aquifers in regions where surface water was scarce.These underground channels, which collect groundwater, are collectively maintained and the water is shared among users according to the amount of labor contributed to the system’s upkeep. Farmers who contribute more labor receive a larger share of water for irrigation. The distribution of water is meticulously timed and managed by community leaders. In cases of water scarcity, priority is given to those with the greatest need, such as farmers growing staple crops [28].
• Water Sharing in Pre-Modern Persia (Qanat System): The qanat system, a series of underground channels used to transport water from aquifers to surface areas, was a common water-sharing method in pre-modern Persia. Water from qanats was divided among users based on a communal schedule, with precise allocations determined by the size of landholdings and the type of crops being grown. Farmers who were located farther away from the source were still guaranteed a share of water, though they had to wait for their scheduled turn [29].
• Water Sharing in the Nahr al-Kabir Canal System in Iraq (Abbasid Period): The Nahr al-Kabir canal system in the Abbasid period (8th-13th centuries) was a large-scale irrigation network in southern Iraq that provided water to agricultural areas. Water sharing agreements were established among farmers, with water being distributed from primary canals to smaller, privately managed channels. The Abbasid rulers ensured that water rights were distributed equitably, especially during droughts. Large landowners and small-scale farmers had to adhere to water-sharing schedules, and any conflicts over water use were resolved by the local courts, which applied Islamic principles of fairness [30].
• Water Sharing in the Andalusian Community of Murcia (12th Century): In 12th-century Murcia, Spain, under Muslim rule, the community managed water sharing through the acequia system. Water from the Segura River was shared via a network of canals, which were managed collectively by the community. Muslim legal scholars and judges oversaw the equitable distribution of water, ensuring that both urban and rural areas had access. Farmers along the river had access to water on a rotational basis. Water usage rights were distributed through written agreements, and disputes were settled by local water courts. These water courts ensured that the principles of Shari’a (Islamic law) were followed in the distribution process, with particular emphasis on fair access for small farmers [31].
• Water Sharing in Kairouan, Tunisia (9th Century): Kairouan, an important Islamic city in Tunisia during the Aghlabid period (9th century), had a well-organized water distribution system that was vital for agriculture and domestic use. The qasaba (cistern) system collected water from seasonal rainfalls and was shared among the community according to Islamic principles of equitable access. Farmers and city dwellers alike participated in the collective management of these water resources. Local officials regulated the usage, ensuring that all community members had fair access, especially during dry periods [32].
• Water Sharing in the Ghassulian and Mamluk Aqueducts in Jerusalem (14th Century): During the Mamluk period (13th-15th centuries), the Ghassulian and other aqueducts in Jerusalem provided water to the city’s inhabitants. These aqueducts were used to channel water from nearby springs to the city, and water-sharing systems were in place to ensure equitable distribution among the population. Water-sharing agreements were overseen by local Islamic authorities, who ensured that water was distributed fairly to all communities, including Christian and Jewish residents [33].
• Water Sharing in the Karez System of the Mughal Empire (India): The karez system, a type of underground irrigation similar to qanats, was widely used in Mughal India, particularly in arid regions such as Sindh and Baluchistan. Water from these underground channels was shared among communities for irrigation and drinking purposes. Water was allocated based on land ownership and agricultural needs, with disputes settled by local Islamic judges. The system was maintained by the local community, and larger landowners often contributed resources to maintain and expand the karez network, ensuring that water was shared equitably [34].
• Water Sharing in the Yamama Region (Early Islamic Period, Arabian Peninsula): In the early Islamic period, the Yamama region of the Arabian Peninsula relied on communal water-sharing systems for agriculture. Water from wells and rainwater catchments was shared among farmers and herders according to agreed-upon schedules. Tribal leaders and local authorities managed water allocation to ensure that water reached all community members. The Prophet Muhammad’s instructions regarding fair water use were particularly influential in shaping these practices. Islamic legal principles mandated that water should be shared equitably, particularly during periods of drought [35].
• Water Sharing in the Sultanate of Malacca (15th Century, Southeast Asia): In the Sultanate of Malacca (modern-day Malaysia), communal water-sharing practices were essential to support the rapidly growing population and trade economy. Water from rivers was shared among users based on the application of Islamic laws of equitable distribution for irrigation, domestic use, and trade. Islamic rulers of Malacca established water rights based on need, ensuring that farmers and traders had sufficient access to water resources. Water sharing was managed by local authorities, who applied Islamic laws of equitable distribution. Islamic legal scholars were involved in resolving disputes over water access and ensuring that all sections of society had fair access to this vital resource [36].
• During Islamic rule, the sophisticated irrigation systems along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia were maintained, expanded, and refined, particularly during the period of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE). The Abbasids, with their capital in Baghdad, invested in the restoration and development of irrigation networks to support agriculture and urban growth. These systems were vital in sustaining the economic and cultural flourishing of the Islamic Golden Age in the region. Although the Mongol invasion in 1258 CE caused significant damage to these irrigation networks, their legacy continued to influence water management practices in the region for centuries [37-39].
• During Islamic rule, norias (water wheels) were extensively used in parts of Syria and Iraq, particularly along rivers like the Euphrates, from the Umayyad Caliphate period (661–750 CE) through the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE). These water-lifting systems supported irrigation and agriculture in regions such as Hama, Syria, where large norias became iconic. Communities maintained the norias cooperatively, ensuring equitable water distribution. Local councils, often operating under Islamic principles of shared resources and justice, regulated the system, emphasizing fairness in water access. This practice reflects the broader Islamic emphasis on sustainable and collective water management during the medieval period [40].

Figure 6. The place where Muslims wash for prayer (wuduh). The al-Kas ablution fountain in the Al-Aqsa Mosque, Palestine (Wikimedia)

3. Hima Water Allocation System

The Hima system, a traditional land and resource management practice in the Middle East with roots in Islamic law, includes guidelines for water allocation that prioritize sustainable and communal water use.

• Water Sharing in the Hima System (Arabian Peninsula, during Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods): The Hima system, a traditional practice in the Arabian Peninsula, involved the communal management of natural resources, including water. Under this system, specific areas were designated as Hima (protected areas) where water resources were conserved and shared among tribes. The water from wells and springs in these areas was distributed among local pastoralists based on need, especially during droughts. Islamic principles reinforced the equitable sharing of water resources in Hima areas, ensuring that poorer herders had access to water for their livestock [41].
• The Hima system was applied in rural parts of Syria and Lebanon for communal management of water sources, such as springs and wells, throughout various periods of Islamic rule, including:

1. Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE): The early Islamic era saw the formalization of principles for communal resource management, guided by Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia), which emphasized equity, conservation, and the prevention of harm.
2. Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE): During this time, the Hima system became more structured as part of broader governance efforts. Water sources were safeguarded under community agreements, often overseen by local authorities or religious leaders, ensuring equitable distribution and sustainability.
3. Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517 CE): In this period, the Hima system continued to be applied in rural communities, particularly for protecting water sources in regions dependent on agriculture and herding.
4. Ottoman Empire (1516–1918 CE): Under Ottoman rule, the Hima system was integrated into administrative frameworks for managing communal lands and resources, including water. Ottoman legal codes, inspired by Islamic principles, reinforced the communal and conservation-oriented nature of Hima practices.

Throughout these four periods, the Hima system exemplified sustainable resource management, ensuring fair access to water while upholding Islamic ethical principles of stewardship, equity, and social justice [41,42].

• In the Asir and Najd region of Saudi Arabia, the Hima system for managing water sources under communal agreements was practiced during various periods of Islamic rule, including:

1. Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE): Early Islamic governance introduced the formalized Hima system, emphasizing equitable access and sustainable resource use. Communities in Asir adhered to these principles, restricting water use during certain times to allow for natural replenishment.
2. Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE): During this era, the Hima system became more widespread in Arabia, including Asir, as Islamic scholars and leaders promoted conservation practices grounded in the Quran and Hadith. The system was integral to maintaining water supplies in arid environments.
3. Rashidi Emirate and Early Ottoman Rule (16th–19th Century CE): Under Ottoman administration, Hima principles persisted in Asir, although local tribal governance often played a significant role in enforcing communal agreements regarding water access.
4. Late Ottoman and Early 20th Century CE: The continuation of Hima practices in Asir reflected enduring local adherence to Islamic traditions, even as modern governance began to reshape resource management in the region.

These four practices demonstrate the enduring influence of Islamic principles on sustainable water management, emphasizing community collaboration, conservation, and equitable distribution in a challenging desert environment. [44,45].

• The Hima system in Jordan, with water-sharing practices applied within communal grazing and agricultural areas, was prevalent during the following periods of Islamic rule:

1. Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE): As Jordan was part of the early Islamic empire, the Hima system began to take formalized shape, with Islamic principles guiding resource management. Water-sharing hierarchies were established to prioritize drinking water over agricultural use, reflecting Quranic teachings on resource allocation.
2. Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE): During this period, the Hima system became more structured and widespread across Jordan and the Levant. Abbasid scholars promoted water conservation principles, and local communities followed these guidelines to reduce over-extraction and ensure sustainable use.
3. Ayyubid and Mamluk Periods (12th–15th Century CE): The Hima system remained integral during these dynasties, particularly in rural and semi-arid regions of Jordan. Emphasis was placed on sustainable water use within grazing zones, aligning with the region’s reliance on agriculture and livestock.
4. Ottoman Period (16th–20th Century CE): Under Ottoman rule, the Hima system continued in Jordan, albeit with modifications influenced by changing administrative and economic conditions. Local tribal and village councils often played a significant role in enforcing water-sharing practices within Hima zones.

These periods illustrate the longevity of the Hima system as a communal approach to water management in Jordan, driven by Islamic guidelines on equity, conservation, and prioritization of essential needs [46].

• The Hima system in Yemen, used to manage irrigation and drinking water sources, was actively applied and formalized during the following periods of Islamic rule, Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates (632–750 CE). Following the advent of Islam, the principles of resource conservation and equitable water distribution guided the application of the Hima system in Yemen. Local tribes began aligning their traditional water-sharing practices with Islamic guidelines, ensuring sustainable use and prioritizing communal needs. Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the Hima system became more entrenched as a mechanism for regulating water access.  Rasulid Dynasty (13th–15th Century CE) who governed much of Yemen, the Hima system was adapted to manage Yemen’s terraced agriculture and intricate irrigation systems. The Ottomans reinforced the use of the Hima system in Yemen, integrating it into broader resource management policies [47,48].
• During the Islamic period, the Hima system in Omani villages became a cornerstone for managing communal water resources in line with Islamic principles. From the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE) through the subsequent Islamic dynasties, Omani communities adopted and reinforced practices that prioritized sustainable water use and equitable distribution [49].
• The recent revival of the Hima system in Jordan as a means of managing scarce water resources sustainably was explored. It highlighted how local communities in Jordan are reintroducing Hima water allocation practices, with each Hima area setting quotas and restrictions on water use. The exploration underscores how these practices are tailored to Islamic principles of communal responsibility and fairness, ensuring that all community members have access to water in times of scarcity [50].

Figure 7. Main water cistern at early Islamic site of Fayd, Saudi Arabia (Wikimedia)

4.  Rotational, Scheduling, Grading, and Quotas Water Allocation Systems

• Water Sharing in the Marib Dam System (Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Yemen): The Marib Dam, one of the oldest known dams in the world, located in Yemen, played a crucial role in water management and sharing. Originally constructed in pre-Islamic times, it continued to be used during the early Islamic period. The dam distributed water for irrigation to various agricultural regions. Water sharing was organized into set time periods based on the needs of different communities. After the arrival of Islam, principles of equity and fairness influenced the maintenance and use of this shared water resource. Water-sharing agreements were overseen by local leaders, ensuring that everyone, especially smaller landowners, had fair access [51].
• Water Sharing in the Persian Qanat System (Safavid Era): In Safavid Iran (16th-17th centuries), the qanat system was a highly effective method of water sharing in arid regions. Water was extracted from underground aquifers and channeled to agricultural fields and urban areas through underground tunnels. Farmers and landowners shared water through a system of rotations and quotas, with local officials ensuring that the water was equitably distributed according to Islamic legal principles. Each community member received a share of water based on their land size and crop needs [52].
• Water Sharing in the Central Asian Karez System (Timurid Period): The karez system in Central Asia, particularly in regions under Timurid rule (14th-15th centuries), was a key method of water sharing in arid environments. Water from underground channels was shared among farmers (agricultural demand), and villages (domestic demand) based on strict schedules. Local Islamic authorities regulated the distribution to ensure that downstream users received a fair share of water even during periods of low water supply [53].
• Water Sharing in the Nile Delta (Mamluk Egypt): In Mamluk Egypt (13th-16th centuries), the Nile Delta was a fertile region that required sophisticated water-sharing mechanisms to manage seasonal flooding and irrigation. Villages along the Nile had specific water rights, and local leaders managed the distribution, ensuring equitable access to water during both flood and dry seasons. The Mamluks implemented water-sharing schedules among villages to ensure that water from the Nile was distributed fairly. They also built canals and reservoirs to manage excess water and distribute it to agricultural fields [54].
• Harat in Yemen: Rotational water allocation was organized through a schedule, where each family or farm had a designated time slot to draw water [55]. In the highlands of Yemen, the harat irrigation system, used in terraced agriculture, prioritized water for drinking before any other use. In times of water scarcity, the distribution of water followed strict guidelines that ensured the needs of the community were met first, particularly for drinking and sanitation. After these needs were satisfied, the remaining water would be used for irrigation, with priority given to essential food crops [56].
• Acequia System in Islamic Spain: Farmers were allocated water during specified times, and community leaders ensured fair access [57].
• In Andalusia, Spain, during the period of Muslim rule (8th–15th centuries), farmers along the Guadalquivir River used timed water distribution methods for irrigation. The Tribunal de las Aguas (Water Tribunal) in Valencia, a system originating in the Andalusian period, still meets today to resolve water disputes based on a timed allocation of water rights [58].
• In Morocco, the practice of allocating water from the Atlas Mountains based on seasonal community needs has its roots in pre-Islamic traditions but was significantly formalized and expanded during the Islamic period (7th–15th Century CE). Traditional water management systems, such as those serving nomadic pastoralists and settled agriculturalists, were integrated with Islamic principles of equitable and sustainable resource use. This included prioritizing water for essential needs like drinking and irrigation. Under Almoravid and Almohad Dynasties (11th–13th Century CE) Islamic states, water allocation systems were institutionalized, reflecting the socio-economic demands of both nomadic and settled communities. During Marinid Dynasty (13th–15th Century CE) period, centralized governance further regulated the equitable distribution of water from the Atlas Mountains. Community councils, often operating under Islamic legal frameworks, ensured that water-sharing agreements adhered to the principles of justice and sustainability [59].
• The khattara system, a variation of the qanat system, was used in the Tafilalet region of southern Morocco. Water was distributed to different farmers on a rotational basis, with the order of distribution often decided by seniority or the size of one’s land. This system ensured that every farmer had access to water during critical irrigation periods [60].
• The water management practices in the Fezna Oasis of Algeria and the foggaras system in Algeria’s Sahara region date back to the Islamic period, specifically from the 8th to 15th centuries CE. These systems were significantly influenced by both pre-Islamic traditions and Islamic governance principles regarding communal resource management.[61,62].
• In the oases of southern Tunisia, likely originated during the Islamic period, particularly from the 9th to 13th centuries CE, water is often distributed using a rotational system. Communities carefully monitor the flow from natural springs, and each household receives water at specific times, based on traditional water-sharing agreements that have been passed down for generations [63].

Figure 8. Banu Musa’s water machines event in 1001 Inventions exhibition

5. Royal Water Allocation

Royal water allocation practices across the Islamic world, illustrating how Muslim monarchies or ruling authorities managed water resources to support agriculture, urban infrastructure, and public welfare through regulated systems aligned with Islamic and communal principles.These allocations were often formalized in royal decrees, aimed at ensuring equitable distribution, agricultural support, and city planning.

• A historical account of royal water management in the Islamic Golden Age was provided, especially under the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasid rulers in Baghdad oversaw extensive irrigation networks and allocated water to support agriculture and public use, with royal decrees ensuring fair distribution across various sectors. Hill notes that these decrees allowed priority access for essential uses, such as drinking and public baths, reflecting a structured approach to water sharing [64].
• The Ottoman water allocation practices was discussed, especially in Istanbul, where sultans issued royal edicts (firman) for the construction and management of aqueducts, cisterns, and fountains. These edicts dictated water distribution from major reservoirs to ensure that public fountains, mosques, and gardens received adequate water. It was detailed how the Ottoman rulers prioritized urban water needs and created a system of water distribution that was strictly regulated under royal oversight [65].
• An insights into Morocco’s royal water management practices was provided, where sultans historically controlled access to key water sources. These historical water management practices in Morocco, began during the Almohad Caliphate in the 12th century CE and continued through the Alawid dynasty in the 17th century and beyond [66].
• The Mamluk sultans’ water distribution practices in Cairo, particularly through the construction of sabils (public fountains) funded by royal endowments was described. It was described how these rulers issued decrees to allocate water for public use, making it freely available to citizens and travelers alike, reflecting the Mamluk commitment to public welfare [67].
• Water allocation in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) under the Nasrid rulers, who constructed complex irrigation systems for palace gardens and agricultural lands was explored. The Nasrid sultans allocated water resources to maintain the Alhambra’s intricate water features, which also supplied nearby communities. Royal decrees ensured water was diverted from the Darro River to support these needs, reflecting a controlled yet equitable distribution that benefited both royal grounds and local agriculture [68].
• Water management under the Achaemenid Islamic Empire was examined, where Persian kings issued edicts to manage rivers and canals for public use and agriculture. For example, King Darius I issued orders for water diversion to support irrigation across royal estates and nearby villages. This allocation system was formalized through royal oversight, ensuring that communities near royal estates had adequate water, which was documented in administrative records [69].
• The Mughal Empire’s extensive water management systems was described, especially under Emperor Akbar, who initiated the construction of canals to support agriculture and urban settlements in the northern plains. Akbar’s royal decrees ensured that water from major rivers was allocated to support agricultural lands around Lahore and Agra. Local officials, appointed by the emperor, supervised these water allocations to balance royal lands’ needs with those of the population [70].
• The Abbasid Caliphate’s approach to water allocation, especially under Caliph Harun al-Rashid was explored. The caliph issued royal orders to construct extensive canals and reservoirs in Baghdad, not only to support royal palaces but also to supply drinking water and irrigation for the city’s population. Royally managed water systems provided equitable access to various urban areas, balancing both public and royal needs [71].
• Royal water management in ancient and medieval Egypt, focusing on how pharaohs and later Islamic rulers managed the Nile’s waters was explored. The rulers allocated water based on community need, issuing decrees to limit overuse during droughts and construct canals to maximize irrigation. Royal oversight ensured equitable distribution, as recorded in royal archives, with provisions for agricultural land and public access in regions near the royal estates [72].
• The Mamluk and Fatimid rulers in Cairo managed water allocation for public works, including mosques, public baths, and fountains were described. The Mamluks issued decrees to build water structures that supplied key urban areas. This centralized approach helped support urban life, agriculture, and hygiene. The Mamluks also prioritized community access to water for irrigation and drinking, showcasing a system where water resources were allocated directly by the ruling class [73].
• Water allocation was managed by royal decree in medieval Valencia under Islamic rule, particularly by the Emirate of Córdoba. The rulers established a sophisticated system of canals, known as the acequias, to irrigate agricultural lands. Allocation was tightly controlled and regulated by the state, ensuring equitable access among different farming communities and reflecting Islamic principles of fairness in resource distribution [74].
• The Seljuk rulers in Anatolia allocated water resources as part of their urban development strategy was discussed. The Seljuks managed water sources and issued decrees for the construction of cisterns, canals, and public fountains in major cities like Konya. These water resources were primarily for public use, including mosques, markets, and caravansaries, demonstrating the role of royal authority in managing and distributing water resources [75].
• Early Ottoman rulers controlled and allocated water resources through royal decrees and waqfs (charitable endowments). In Istanbul, for instance, the Ottomans created an extensive aqueduct system that delivered water to public fountains and imperial buildings. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent notably issued orders for the construction of the Kırkçeşme aqueduct, ensuring a steady water supply to Istanbul’s citizens, illustrating a royal commitment to urban water accessibility [76].
• Water allocation in the gardens of Alhambra under the Nasrid rulers in Granada, Spain. The Nasrids built complex water channels and pools that served both practical and aesthetic purposes. This royal water management system ensured that both the palace gardens and the surrounding agricultural lands had sufficient water, demonstrating how Nasrid rulers used water as a tool for both public and royal benefit [77].

• The rulers of Abbasids and Ottomans implemented large irrigation networks including over and underground channels and allocated water to users in equitable way based on community needs, often guided by Islamic/Shariah law principles of equity and sustainable water management practices [78,79]. Rulers acted during droughts, to prioritize water for drinking and agriculture, often in coordination with local leaders [80].

6. Water Markets and Trade

Water markets, which allow users where water from canals or wells could be bought or traded, especially in dry regions where water was scarce to trade water rights or access to water resources, existed in various forms in Islamic Spain (Al-Andalus) and North Africa [81,82]. Whether through auctions, contracts, or leasing, water markets allowed individuals and communities to respond to the fluctuating availability of water while adhering to principles of equity and fairness rooted in Islamic law. These markets were often informal but operated under principles of Islamic law, where water was regarded as a shared resource, but certain rights to its use could be bought, sold, or leased in times of scarcity or surplus. Below are examples of how water markets functioned in these regions:

• Islamic Spain (Al-Andalus) – Water Market in Valencia: In Al-Andalus, particularly in the agricultural region of Valencia, water from the acequia (canal) systems was traded among farmers. The Islamic irrigation courts, such as the Tribunal de las Aguas de Valencia, oversaw these transactions. Farmers would buy or lease rights to water based on their irrigation needs, especially during the dry season. This system allowed flexibility in water use, enabling those with surplus water to sell their rights to others in need [83].
• Islamic Spain (Granada) – Market for Water Rights: In the Emirate of Granada, where water was a valuable and scarce resource, water markets developed and was a common practice to facilitate the transfer of water rights between users. Farmers and urban residents could buy, sell, or rent water from canals and irrigation systems. Water was allocated based on the size of landholdings and the types of crops being cultivated. Transactions were often recorded, and water could be traded on a seasonal or temporary basis, ensuring that those with urgent needs for irrigation during critical agricultural periods could secure water [84].
• North Africa (Morocco) – Water Markets in the Middle Atlas: In the Middle Atlas region of Morocco (12-17^th century), water markets emerged in the context of khettara irrigation systems (underground channels). These markets allowed individuals to trade their rights to khettara water. Communities organized their water access through scheduled rotations, but when one farmer needed more water than their scheduled share, they could buy additional water from a neighbor. Water markets became particularly important in times of drought or during the summer months [85].
• Islamic Spain – Water Auctions in Murcia:In the region of Murcia, water auctions were a common practice, where water from the acequias was allocated based on bids. When there was excess water during certain times of the year, it could be auctioned off to the highest bidder. This system allowed those in need of water for agriculture to secure additional water during critical planting or harvesting periods. Water auctions were a form of water market that allowed for equitable access while ensuring efficient use of resources [86].
• North Africa (Tunisia) – Water Markets in Oasis Systems: In Tunisia during(16th–19th centuries), particularly in the oasis regions, water rights were often traded in informal markets. The complex irrigation systems that sustained agriculture in oases, such as ghout systems, allowed users to trade water access during periods of scarcity. Farmers with surplus water, often from private wells, could sell or lease their water to neighboring farmers. These water markets were crucial for the survival of crops, especially date palms, which were vital to the local economy[87].
• Water Trading in Fez, Morocco (Market-Based Allocation): The growing urban population and artisanal industries in Fez, particularly during the medieval Islamic period (around the 10th to 16th centuries),  placed increased demand on water resources, which led to the establishment of a water-trading system. Water access was carefully monitored, and individuals could lease or sell their water shares to others.In Fez, Morocco, during the medieval Islamic period, water from the qanat (underground canal) systems was often traded in informal markets. The city’s residents could buy and sell water rights for domestic, industrial, or agricultural use. Artisans, especially those working in leather tanneries and textile dyeing, often purchased extra water during high-demand periods. Similarly, farmers could trade their surplus water shares to neighbors in exchange for cash or other commodities [88].
• Water Contracts in Seville, Spain (Al-Andalus): In Seville, during the Islamic period, water contracts were common, particularly in agricultural settings. Contracts often stipulated the amount of water to be provided and the price, and they could include clauses for renegotiation in case of drought or reduced water availability. Landowners who owned wells or access to irrigation canals (such as acequias) would enter into formal agreements with other farmers, selling them the right to use water for specific time periods or agricultural cycles. The contracts were drawn up under Islamic legal principles, which ensured that water trading was fair and equitable [89].
• Water Auctions in Islamic Tunisia (Oases and Date Palms): In the oasis regions of southern Tunisia, such as in the town of Tozeur, water markets developed around the irrigation needs of date palm groves. Water from shared irrigation channels was often auctioned off to the highest bidder, particularly during the summer when water demand was highest. Water auctions were public events overseen by local leaders, where individual farmers could bid for additional water rights based on their crop needs [90].
• Water Rights Leasing in Tlemcen, Algeria: In Tlemcen, Algeria, during the Islamic period, water from communal irrigation systems was often leased to individual farmers during periods of water scarcity. Water leasing allowed those with limited access to water resources to temporarily acquire more water for irrigation. These leases could last for an agricultural season or longer, depending on the arrangement, and were usually negotiated within the framework of Islamic law, which ensured fairness and equity in water distribution [91].
• Water Markets in Cordoba, Spain: In Cordoba, during the height of Islamic rule in Al-Andalus, water markets flourished around the city’s complex irrigation networks. Farmers and urban residents could trade water shares from the city’s canals, and water rights could be bought and sold based on the needs of different sectors. Water trading in Cordoba was highly regulated, with strict oversight by Islamic jurists and local officials to prevent overuse and ensure that water was allocated equitably.The market system allowed Cordoba’s growing population to maintain access to water for domestic use, agriculture, and industries like textiles [92].

7. Allocation by Water rights: Tribunals and Legal Systems

• Tribunal of Waters (Valencia, Spain): This Islamic-influenced tribunal in Valencia, Spain, was established to resolve disputes over irrigation water and is still operational today. Water allocated based on fairness, community need, and Islamic or local legal principles [93].
• Shariah Courts: In medieval Islamic societies, water disputes were often settled in courts following principles of fairness (adl) and communal welfare (maslaha) [94].

8. Water Allocation by Custom and Tradition: Tribal and Nomadic Societies

• Water sources such as oases and wells were communally managed,where Bedouin Tribes (Arabian Peninsula) exist  implementing customary rules determining how water was allocated among tribal members [95].
• Pashtunwali (Afghanistan and Pakistan): The Pashtun tribal code (Afghanistan and Pakistan) included rules for water sharing from karez (underground water channels), ensuring that every tribe member received water according to traditional rights [96].
• In Mauritania, traditional water-sharing practices are deeply influenced by Islamic water law (fiqh al-ma’). Nomadic communities in Mauritania rely on wells and seasonal rivers, and Islamic teachings guide the fair distribution of these water sources. Water is considered a gift from God, and no individual has the right to hoard it or deny access to others, especially in times of scarcity [97].
• In Yemen, water allocation, especially in rural areas, follows a blend of tribal and Islamic customary laws. Islamic teachings on water management emphasize fairness (adl) and communal sharing (shura), and these are reflected in traditional water rights, where water is distributed equitably based on need. Local water councils, which incorporate Islamic teachings, ensure that water from wells, rivers, and irrigation systems is shared fairly among community members [98].
• In North Africa, particularly in regions like the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco, traditional water allocation was based on local customary law (urf). Water from mountain springs was allocated to farmers using a system of community consensus, with strict rotations and seasonal adjustments to ensure that both upstream and downstream users received sufficient water [99].
• In Baluchistan, Pakistan, water from underground aquifers is shared based on customary laws that date back centuries. Each tribe or community is entitled to water for specific periods, and local elders who ensure fair access and compliance with these customary laws to maintain harmony and prevent disputes [100-102].
• Jma’a Councils: Local councils, known as Jma’a, were often established in rural or tribal areas of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia and are responsible for managing water resources and oversee irrigation and water-sharing practices. These councils made decisions about water allocation based on local needs and environmental conditions [103-105].

9. Water Allocation through Waqf, and Charity

There are many practices and examples related to the use and impact of the Islamic endowment on water allocation/distribution and management in Islamic civilization, and here a sample of these is presented, and for more details you can refer to the following reference [148].

• Water Sharing in Early Islamic Medina (Al-Madinah) : During the time of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), the community of Medina practiced water sharing among tribes, especially during periods of scarcity. One famous example is the construction of wells and the arrangement of shared water rights among Muhajirun (migrants) and Ansar (local inhabitants). The Prophet’s emphasis on the equitable distribution of water resources led to the communal sharing of water in Medina. The well was initially privately owned, but Uthman purchased it and opened it for public use, thus ensuring water access for the poor and vulnerable [107].
• Water Sharing in the Waqf (Endowment) System in the Ottoman Empire: Throughout the Ottoman Empire, water-sharing systems were often supported through waqf (endowments). Wealthy individuals or rulers would endow wells, water cisterns, or aqueducts allowing for the permanent provision of water resources for public use. The endowments were designed to benefit public spaces, such as mosques, schools, and public baths, and could also be used for agricultural purposes. In many cities, like Damascus and Istanbul, these endowments were the primary source of clean drinking water, and their management was entrusted to local religious leaders to ensure that water was shared fairly [108].
• Water Sharing in the Ghassulian and Mamluk Aqueducts in Jerusalem (14th Century): The Mamluks built and maintained several public fountains (sabils) in Jerusalem that distributed water to the local population for free. These fountains, supported by waqf endowments, ensured that even the poorest residents had access to water. The water was carefully allocated between different districts to avoid shortages [109].
• Water Sharing in the Wadi Zamzam (Islamic Saudi Arabia): The Zamzam Well, located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, has been a vital water source for pilgrims and locals for centuries. Historically, water from the well was shared freely among pilgrims during the Hajj pilgrimage. The practice of water sharing at Zamzam reflects the Islamic values of hospitality and charity. Local families were responsible for ensuring that the well was open to all, and the water was distributed without charge [110].
• Water Sharing in the Ghazi Husrev-beg System (Ottoman Bosnia): In Ottoman Bosnia, the Ghazi Husrev-beg Waqf (endowment) was established to manage the distribution of water to public fountains, mosques, and homes freely to the public in Sarajevo. The waqf system allowed for the endowment of wells and public fountains that ensured equitable access to water for all citizens, particularly during periods of water scarcity. Also, this system of water sharing was based on Islamic principles of charity and communal welfare, ensuring that even the poorest residents had access to clean water [111].
• Public wells and fountains in Islamic Cairo were established through charitable trusts to ensure equitable water access for all citizens [112].
• The city of Fes, Morocco had a sophisticated network of fountains, public baths, and cisterns funded by wealthy patrons, ensuring access to clean water for urban populations [113].
• In medieval Fes, Morocco, water distribution was organized around waqf (charitable endowments), with the primary focus on fulfilling the needs of the city’s population. Public fountains and baths were established through waqf to ensure that everyone had access to water for drinking and sanitation. After these basic needs were met, water was allocated to nearby agricultural lands, following a strict hierarchy that prioritized essential needs over commercial uses [114].
• In Darfur, water scarcity is a major issue and Islamic teachings on resource sharing are critical in preventing conflict. Wells and reservoirs funded by Islamic charities (sadaqah) ensure that water is allocated fairly among rural communities, reducing tensions over water access. Local Islamic leaders often mediate water-sharing agreements between communities, drawing on Islamic jurisprudence to ensure fairness and prevent disputes. These agreements are based on the idea that water is a communal resource, to be shared and managed for the benefit of all [115,116].
• In Morocco, Islamic endowments (waqf) have been used to fund the construction of wells and irrigation systems in rural communities, ensuring that water resources are shared equitably [117].
• Islamic charity (sadaqah) also plays a significant role in providing water infrastructure for remote communities in Mauritania. Religious organizations fund the construction of wells and ensure that water is distributed equitably, particularly among vulnerable populations. Islamic leaders in these communities often mediate disputes over water rights, ensuring that water is shared in accordance with Islamic principles of fairness and communal responsibility [118].
• In Mali, Islamic charitable organizations play a key role in improving water access in rural areas, especially in the Sahel region where water scarcity is severe. Islamic charity (sadaqah) and endowments (waqf) are used to fund the construction of wells, ensuring that water is shared equitably among communities. The Islamic principle of communal responsibility (fard kifayah) obligates Muslims to work together to provide essential services, such as access to clean water. Local practices in Mali also draw from Islamic jurisprudence on water rights, ensuring that water from wells and rivers is distributed according to need, with priority given to drinking water, livestock, and agriculture. Islamic leaders often mediate conflicts over water allocation, using teachings from the Qur’an and Hadith to ensure fair and peaceful resolutions [119-121].

10. Water Allocation by Feudal Need and Priority in Time of Water Shortage, Scarcity, and Stress.

• The aflaj irrigation system in Oman is based on equitable water distribution according to need. Water is allocated first for domestic purposes, such as drinking and washing, and then distributed among farmers based on the size of their agricultural plots and the nature of their crops. Larger plots or crops with greater water needs, like date palms, would receive more water, but only after fulfilling basic domestic needs of the community [122].
• During the Ottoman period in Palestine, water allocation from springs and wells was governed by need-based principles. Domestic use, particularly for drinking and personal hygiene, was prioritized over agricultural use. Even in times of scarcity, the needs of the community were considered first, and water for essential household tasks took precedence over the irrigation of crops or industrial uses [123].
• The Qanat System in Iran (Water Distribution Based on Crop and Household Needs): The qanat system in Iran, an ancient method of underground water channels, was managed to ensure that water was first allocated for household needs such as drinking, cooking, and cleaning. Farmers were granted access to the water based on the size of their fields and the types of crops they grew, with water-intensive crops receiving priority only if water was sufficient after domestic uses were met. The system relied on a communal decision-making process to ensure fair allocation based on these needs [124].
• Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) and the Need-Based Water Allocation in Agriculture. In Islamic Spain (Al-Andalus), water from canals and aqueducts was allocated based on need, both for urban residents and agricultural purposes. The acequia system, introduced by the Muslims, was a highly regulated system in which water was first allocated for drinking and domestic use in cities such as Cordoba and Granada. Only after these needs were met could the remaining water be distributed among farmers. This ensured that every community, regardless of size, had access to sufficient water for survival [125].
• In medieval societies, water rights were controlled by feudal lords or rulers, who allocated water for agricultural and domestic uses [126].
• In the Islamic world, the Abbasids and Ottomans, often managed large irrigation networks such as the Nahrawan canal and allocated water based on community needs, often guided by Shariah law principles of equity [127].

11. Discussion and Concluding Remarks

In an Islamic community, caring about fair access and allocation of water means adhering to Islamic principles of equity, justice, sustainability, shared responsibility, and conflict prevention among users and sectors. This approach respects all members’ rights to water, ensuring that everyone—regardless of socioeconomic status, geographic location, or other factors—has equitable and sufficient water to meet essential needs, such as drinking, cooking, sanitation, and other vital uses like agriculture, industry, recreation, and tourism. Islamic teachings emphasize water as a communal resource that must be managed equitably to avoid waste and hoarding, aligning with the principles of adl (justice) and maslaha (public welfare)[128].

Water allocation approaches are vital in water management because they ensure that water resources are distributed efficiently, fairly/equitably, and sustainably among various users, economic sectors, and ecosystems. As water resources face increasing pressure from population growth, climate change, and industrial demands, having structured allocation approaches helps prioritize essential uses, balance economic and social development goals, prevent conflicts, and support long-term resource availability. By providing a clear and effective framework for who gets water, when, and how much, allocation approaches allow managers to address competing needs—such as agriculture, industry, domestic use, and environmental preservation—more effectively.

The Quranic verse, “And We made from water every living thing” (Quran 21:30), underscores the fundamental role of water as a source of all life and as an element of every societal development. Applying this divine principle to the allocation and distribution of water means recognizing water’s essential value and prioritizing its fair and responsible allocation across communities and sectors. This trust implies that water should be allocated with care, ensuring that all beneficiaries—people, animals, and ecosystems—are considered in its allocation.

In addition to the above, life and development are inherently tied to the availability of water, as water is fundamental for sustaining life and essential for economic and social progress. Water availability, access, and allocation directly influences health, food security, and sanitation, which are critical components of human well-being. Access to clean, reliable water sources empowers communities to grow food, maintain livestock, and support industries, leading to job creation and economic stability.

With limited water resources in many Muslim countries, efficiency and waste reduction in water allocation played crucial roles in alleviating water scarcity and managing stress on limited water resources. Proper water allocation policies often incorporated specific regulations and technological solutions aimed at enhancing efficiency and minimizing waste, particularly in agriculture, industry, and urban settings. A historical example of efficient water allocation and waste reduction in a water-scarce Muslim region is the qanat system, which played a significant role in sustaining agriculture and supporting settlements in the arid regions of Iran. This ancient system exemplified Islamic principles of equitable resource management and waste minimization, allowing communities to thrive despite limited water availability [129].

The practice of the implementation of various water allocation and allocation approaches over more than fourteen centuries has led to learning the following lessons and concluding remarks:

• Islamic societies developed diverse, community-oriented approaches to water allocation, often ahead of their time in terms of sustainability, justice, and equity. These methods highlight the importance of balancing human and developmental needs in resource allocation.
• Islamic principles, particularly those derived from Sharia (law), heavily influenced water allocation approaches and approaches, ensuring fairness (adl), collective welfare (maslaha), and a respect for water as a communal resource.
• Following the Islamic directive, basic human needs, such as drinking and sanitation take precedence in water allocation then agriculture and other needs. The verse also suggests a broader ecological responsibility, emphasizing that ecosystems supporting plant and animal life are integral to sustaining life overall.
• Role of Local Governance and Customary Law: Local governance structures, such as the Jma’a councils and Hisba (market inspectors), played crucial roles in water allocation by enforcing community-based and Islamic laws. These bodies helped prevent monopolies and ensured that water reached those most in need.
• Many Muslim communities adapted their water allocation systems according to the local environment, whether in arid regions requiring strict allocation measures or areas where agriculture necessitated elaborate irrigation systems.
• The traditional water allocation approaches in Islamic history prove effective and have left a lasting and continuing legacy, influencing contemporary water policies in regions with historical Islamic roots.
• Islamic water allocation approaches often prioritized conflict prevention and resolution. Local leaders, often guided by Islamic principles, mediated disputes and fostered cooperation, strengthening community bonds.
• The water allocation approaches used by Muslims throughout history offer valuable lessons for modern water scarcity challenges. Islamic principles and historical approaches can inspire sustainable and equitable water allocation in contemporary societies.
• Emphasis on Public and Private Sector Balance: The historical balance between public and private sector involvement in water allocation reveals the significance of community-based and government-supported models, suggesting a framework for collaborative water allocation.
• Further research could deepen our understanding of how these historical approaches can be integrated into modern frameworks, particularly in regions facing acute water shortages or conflicts over water resources.
• History of Islamic water allocation indicates that the responsibility of water allocation was collective. Communities, governments, and industries should cooperate in allocating water resources, prioritizing equitable sharing, efficient use, and protection of water sources.
• Applying these Islamic principles encourages a holistic and balanced approach to water allocation, ensuring that all living things benefit from the gift of water, supporting both life and development in harmony with Islamic ethics.

World Water Day

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