This article examines the hammam, or traditional Islamic bathhouse, as both a spiritual and communal institution in Muslim societies. Building on Greco-Roman thermae, the hammam evolved into a space rooted in Islamic principles of purification, linked to rituals like ghusl and wudu (ablution). Prof. Mesut Idriz highlights its role in hygiene, spirituality, and urban life, while Prof. Ebru Ibish stresses its connection to Islam’s teaching that “cleanliness is half of faith”. More than a bathhouse, the hammam embodied equality, health, and hospitality, leaving an enduring legacy that continues to inspire discussions on heritage, wellness, and community today.
Figure 1. Hamam, or Turkish bath (about 1809) by Anonymous Greek Artist (Painter) – This picture was one of a series commissioned by Stratford Canning (later Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe), 1786-1880. He began his long diplomatic career in Turkey as first secretary to Robert Adair on his mission to Istanbul in 1808. On arrival Canning soon arranged to see officially (and unofficially) all manner of Ottoman institutions, buildings and customs… (collections.vam.ac.uk)
Figure 2. Former Turkish Baths, historic site, commercial building, city centre, Sheffield, UK – This building was a medical facility built in 1836 and later converted into public baths, including a Turkish bath suite, in 1877. The baths closed in the early 2000s, and the main bath became a Wetherspoon pub (The Swim Inn). The Turkish bath suite has recently been redeveloped and opened as a 21st-century spa – Spa 1877. (geograph.org.uk)
Unlike the ancient Greco-Roman thermae, which were primarily used for bathing and relaxation, Turkish public bathhouses, known as hammams, played a vital role in the Muslim world as centers of spirituality and community life, notes Mesut Idriz, Professor of Islamic Studies at Sharjah University, in a new article.
Prof. Idriz, who is also the Director of Sharjah International Foundation for the History of Muslim and Arab Sciences (SIFHAMS), exposes in his research the history and cultural significance of the hammam, or traditional Islamic bathhouse, tracing its roots and evolution across Muslim societies.
“The … two terms of thermae (ancient Greco-Roman) and hammam (Arabic and Muslim vocabulary) both refer to the meaning of steam bath or spreader of warmth…” Prof. Idriz.
However, he adds that the hammam in Muslim societies played a religious role and was frequented to perform rituals that required the washing of the entire body in pure water and “in specific cases for both the living and the dead.”
Prof. Idriz relates hammam bathing to the Islamic tradition of Ghusl, which he calls:
“…major ablution (that) must be performed whenever a state of major ritual impurity has been incurred: following sexual intercourse, seminal emission, menstruation, or childbirth.”
Figure 3. Çifte Hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia – Built in the 15th Century by Isa Bey, this hammam is located in the middle of the Old Skopje Bazaar, between the Murat Pasha Mosque and the Suli Lodging. The three buildings remain the only “Islamic trio” in the area of the bazaar and in Skopje in general. Islamic Trinities were building complexes in Ottoman cities, consisting of three public buildings: lodgings (caravanserais) for overnight stays, mosques for religious rites, and hammams for hygiene. – Credit: Viktor Trajanovski, et.al. The Chifte Hammam | Center for Ethnological research and Applied Anthropology
The hammam was an integral part of the urban planning of Islamic cities; although primarily a public bathing facility, it featured prominently in Islamic cultural life. Inherited from the Roman thermae, Muslims across regions invested heavily in their construction, and some of the surviving hammams are preserved as architectural marvels of the Ottoman dynasty.
The hammam tradition, while sharing similarities with Roman thermae and European spas, developed unique practices grounded in Islamic principles, says Prof. Idriz. He even links the role of the hammam in Islamic history to the emphasis that Islam’s holy book, the Quran, places on water as the source of life.
In Islam, water has an elevated spiritual meaning, reflected in Islamic purification rituals such as wudu, Arabic for ablution, and the full-body wash or ghusl. These religious obligations helped popularize and institutionalize the hammam as a communal space accessible to all classes.
“The hammam tradition is rooted in the Islamic emphasis on cleanliness and the sacredness of water. Throughout Muslim history, the hammam made it easier for people to stay clean and spiritually prepared.”
Figure 4. An Ottoman Hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia – Daut Pasha Hammam is a historical monument of Islamic culture and an excellent example of Islamic architecture. The hammam was built by Daut Pasha in the second half of the 15th Century and today functions as the National Gallery of North Macedonia. Credit: Mesut Idriz
Ebru Ibish, Professor of Legal Studies and Ethics at the International Balkan University (IBU), Skopje, North Macedonia, relates the tradition of the hammam in the Muslim world to Islam’s emphasis on cleanliness and purification of the physical body, which for Muslims is part of the purification of the soul.
“In Islam, the emphasis on cleanliness, attention to detail in personal hygiene, and spiritual purification are deeply embedded in religious teachings and daily practice. For this reason, it is only natural that the hammam, a place dedicated to cleansing both the body and spirit, is strongly associated with these core values of the faith.”
Figure 5. Remains of Shifte Hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia – One of the rooms in the Shifte Hammam in Skopje, the only one that has not been converted into a gallery, along with its auxiliary rooms. Credit: File:Čifte hamam u Skoplju.JPG – (Wikimedia)
When it comes to the popular appeal of the hammam, Muslims usually mention one widely recognized saying: “Cleanliness is half of faith.” Prof. Ibish states that cleanliness is a part of Islamic teachings, and the hammam for Muslims serves as a vital place for purification.
“In line with this teaching, the hammam stands as a vital institution where Muslims historically fulfilled this aspect of their faith, making it a cornerstone of both religious observance and community life, highlighting the profound importance of maintaining personal hygiene.”
Figure 6. Çifte Hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia – Islamic Trinities were building complexes in Ottoman cities, consisting of three public buildings: lodgings (caravanserais) for overnight stays, mosques for religious rites, and hammams for hygiene. Credit: Viktor Trajanovski, et.al. The Chifte Hammam | Center for Ethnological research and applied anthropology
Prof. Ibish maintains that Islam strongly emphasizes cleanliness and purity of both body and soul; thus, visiting the hammam for Muslims is more than a social or hygienic custom.
“It is deeply rooted in Islamic tradition that reflects the religion’s continuous reminder that maintaining purity is a duty not only for the physical body but also for the spiritual self. It is a practice that bridges inner and outer cleanliness.”
“The hammam is a practical institution in Islam. It is an aspect that offers a structured environment that encourages regular hygiene, while also fostering a sense of spiritual renewal and well-being through purification rituals.”
Figure 7. Daut Pasha Hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia – Daut Pasha Hammam is a historical monument of Islamic culture and functions today as the National Gallery of North Macedonia. Credit: Mesut Idriz
Though not an Islamic invention in and of itself, the history of public bathhouses in Islam goes back to the early Islamic periods, spreading widely across the Muslim world, spanning from Arabia and North Africa across the Balkans to Spain. In each region, the hammam adapted to evolving cultures and social norms; for instance, in Muslim lands, the hammam has always been separated by gender.
Prof. Idriz mentions that the Muslim hammam developed uniquely within Islamic culture. It became a physical manifestation and part of landmarks of Ottoman tradition, he explains, adding that they were more than just bathhouses, as they were endowed with a combination of functions that included massage for physical and spiritual healing, in addition to heat and water.
“Historically, the hammam symbolized a clean body and a clean society. It promoted health, hospitality, and moral behavior, and was even inspected regularly by public officials to maintain order and hygiene,” he describes. “Entrance fees were kept low so all members of society could use the hammam, regardless of their wealth or status. It was a place where everyone could come together, from the rich to the poor.”
Figure 8. Cejvan Ćehajić Hammam, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina – The “Hamam Museum” in Mostar was originally the historic Cejvan Ćehajić Hammam—a traditional Ottoman public bath built near the Tabakhane (leather-working quarter) between the late 16th and early 17th centuries in the classical Ottoman style. It was later restored and repurposed for cultural exhibitions and events, and today is commonly referred to as the Hamam Museum. (Wikimedia)
Prof. Idriz hopes his writings about the hammam as a social and religious space in the Muslim world will prompt the industry, cultural institutions, and academia alike to take a deeper interest in exploring the rich tradition of the Turkish bathhouse.
About his own work on the hammam, he says:
“While the research is grounded in historical and cultural analysis, its findings have relevance beyond academia, offering valuable insights for fields such as wellness tourism, heritage preservation, and architectural restoration.”
“By shedding light on the hammam as a multifaceted institution, combining hygiene, spirituality, and community lifestyle, the study encourages collaboration across sectors to revive, preserve, and adapt this heritage in ways that resonate with contemporary needs and audiences.”
Figure 9. Çifte Hammam (on the left), Skopje, North Macedonia – Panoramic view of the old town of Skopje with a hammam, han (lodge), bazaar, and mosques. Credit: Dr. Eyüp Kul
Researching the social and spiritual dimensions of the hammam in Muslims’ history and life, according to Prof. Idriz, has practical implications and real-world applications.
In the heyday of the Ottoman Empire (approx. the 16th century), there were an estimated 230 hammams in Istanbul (then Constantinople) alone, though today only around 60 are in operation.
Asked about future research on the Turkish bathhouse, Prof. Idriz said he and colleagues wanted to explore how the hammam tradition evolved across different regions such as today’s Middle East, the Balkans, North Africa, and Andalusia, while shedding light on local, cultural, and religious influences and variations.
Figure 10. Isa Bey Hammam in Tetovo, North Macedonia. Famous hammam in Kalkandelen (Tetovo) built by Isa Bey in the 15th century, North Macedonia Credit: Dr. Eyüp Kul
Figure 11. Ancient Hammam – Bathing method and items used in an ancient hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia. Credit: Mesut Idriz
Figure 12. Daut Pasha Hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia. Caption: Interior and dome of the hammam. – Credit: Mesut Idriz
Figure 13. Daut Pasha Hammam, Skopje, North Macedonia. – External view of the building and the entrance to the hammam of Daut Pasha in Skopje.Credit: Dr. Eyüp Kul – Caption: Interior and dome of the hammam. Credit: Dr. Eyüp Kul
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