This paper investigates the life, inventions, and enduring legacy of Badiʿ al-Zaman Abū al-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl ibn al-Razzāz al-Jazarī, a pioneering mechanical engineer of the 12th–13th centuries whose work exemplifies the intellectual and technological achievements of the Islamic Golden Age. Focusing on his seminal manuscript, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, the study explores Al-Jazarī’s innovative contributions to automation, hydraulics, and mechanical design. By analyzing key inventions—including complex water clocks, automata, and water-raising machines—this research highlights the sophisticated engineering principles embedded in his work, many of which prefigure concepts in modern robotics and cybernetics. The paper also situates Al-Jazarī within the broader historical and cultural context of medieval Islamic science and reflects on the interdisciplinary nature of his legacy, emphasizing its relevance to contemporary engineering, education, and design ethics. Through a critical examination of both primary texts and contemporary scholarship, this study reasserts Al-Jazarī’s rightful place as a visionary precursor to modern mechanical engineering and robotics.
The history of engineering is punctuated by the contributions of remarkable individuals whose ingenuity transcended the limits of their time. Among these, Badiʿ al-Zaman Abū al-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl ibn al-Razzāz al-Jazarī—commonly known as Al-Jazarī—stands out as a pioneering figure in mechanical engineering [1]. Serving as the chief engineer at the Artuqid court in Diyarbakır (in present-day Turkey) during the late 12th and early 13th century, Al-Jazarī authored one of the most influential technological manuscripts of the medieval world: Kitāb fī maʿrifat al-ḥiyal al-handasiyya (The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices) [2]. This richly illustrated compendium (completed in 1206) not only catalogued a wide array of mechanical inventions but also offered a systematic methodology for design and construction, demonstrating a level of engineering sophistication that was centuries ahead of its time [2], [3], [4]. While often celebrated for the aesthetic brilliance of his devices, Al-Jazarī’s true genius lies in his integration of scientific principles with practical function and artistic vision. His work exemplifies the intellectual spirit of the Islamic Golden Age—a period marked by intense scholarly activity and groundbreaking contributions to science, mathematics, and technology [5].
This paper examines the life, work, and legacy of Al-Jazarī, with particular focus on his mechanical inventions and their lasting impact on both historical and modern engineering practices. Through detailed analysis of his major inventions—such as programmable water clocks, humanoid automata, and advanced hydraulic machines—we highlight Al-Jazarī’s role as a forerunner of modern robotics and automation [6], [7], [8]. In addition, we explore the engineering principles he employed (including early uses of crankshafts, feedback control, and mechanical programmability) and draw critical comparisons between Al-Jazarī’s designs and contemporary concepts in robotics, automation, control systems, and cybernetics. Finally, by situating Al-Jazarī within both his historical milieu and the modern context, we demonstrate how his interdisciplinary legacy continues to inspire and inform today’s engineering and educational endeavors.
The remarkable achievements of Al-Jazarī can only be fully understood within the vibrant intellectual and cultural framework of the Islamic Golden Age (8th–14th centuries). During this era, the Islamic world emerged as a global epicenter of scientific inquiry, technological innovation, and cross-cultural knowledge exchange. Major urban centers such as Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, and Cordoba flourished as cosmopolitan hubs of learning, where scholars from diverse religious and ethnic backgrounds engaged in collaborative scholarship and translation efforts.
One of the most significant intellectual developments of this period was the Graeco-Arabic translation movement, exemplified by institutions such as the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Ḥikma) in Baghdad. Here, foundational texts from Greek, Persian, Indian, and Roman civilizations were not only translated into Arabic but also critically evaluated, commented upon, and expanded through original research [9]. These translations laid the groundwork for breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and especially mechanical engineering.
The integration of theoretical knowledge with practical craftsmanship was a hallmark of Islamic science. Engineering was regarded not merely as a utilitarian discipline but as a harmonious fusion of science, art, and philosophy. Mechanical devices were designed to educate, delight, and serve, reflecting a worldview in which beauty and utility were mutually reinforcing [10], [11]. Within this intellectual milieu, Al-Jazarī distinguished himself as a mechanical genius whose devices embodied both scientific rigor and aesthetic refinement.
Al-Jazarī was born circa 1136 CE in Jazīrat ibn ʿUmar (modern-day Cizre, southeastern Turkey), a region situated in Upper Mesopotamia. His title, al-Jazarī, derives from his place of origin. Although little is known about his early life, historical accounts confirm that he served for over 25 years as chief engineer (amir al-muhandisīn) at the court of the Artuqid dynasty in Amid (modern Diyarbakır) [12].
Under the patronage of the Artuqid ruler Nasir al-Dīn Maḥmūd, Al-Jazarī was provided with both material resources and an intellectually stimulating environment in which to pursue his mechanical experiments. The Artuqid court mirrored the broader Islamic culture of scientific curiosity and tolerance, encouraging collaborations between engineers, artisans, and scholars [13].
Al-Jazarī built upon the earlier works of Banū Mūsā (9th century) and Thābit ibn Qurra, whose treatises on automata and hydraulic devices circulated widely. However, Al-Jazarī advanced the field significantly by systematizing engineering knowledge in a uniquely practical and accessible format. His magnum opus, Kitāb fī Maʿrifat al-Ḥiyal al-Handasiyya (The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices), stands as one of the earliest comprehensive manuals of mechanical engineering [14], [15].
This richly illustrated manuscript categorizes over fifty mechanical inventions across six main chapters [16]:
What sets Al-Jazarī apart from his contemporaries is his clarity of exposition and pedagogical intent. He not only described the purpose and function of each device but also provided detailed construction instructions, material specifications, and precise measurements, transforming his treatise into a blueprint for replication [17]. This methodological rigor makes Al-Jazarī not only an inventor but also a systematizer and teacher, intent on preserving and transmitting engineering knowledge for future generations.
His work exemplifies the confluence of scientific exploration, artistic expression, and practical application—a hallmark of Islamic engineering at its zenith. More importantly, Al-Jazarī’s contributions challenge Eurocentric narratives of technological history by demonstrating that advanced mechanical concepts such as crankshafts, cams, feedback control, and programmability were being explored and implemented centuries before their appearance in Europe.
In the sections that follow, we examine in detail Al-Jazarī’s most influential inventions and analyze the engineering principles underlying his work, with special attention to their connections to modern robotics, automation, and cybernetics.
Al-Jazarī’s mechanical inventions were not merely isolated demonstrations of technical skill; rather, they exemplified a systematic and empirical approach to mechanical design, characterized by iterative experimentation, functional adaptability, and a deep understanding of physical laws. His work displays an integrated vision of engineering in which form, function, and user interaction were cohesively balanced—centuries before such principles became codified in modern engineering practice [14].
The diversity of Al-Jazarī’s devices—ranging from water clocks and hydraulic pumps to automated musicians and programmable vessels—underscores his wide-ranging ingenuity and foresight. These machines addressed both practical societal needs (such as irrigation, water distribution, and time regulation) and aesthetic or ceremonial functions (including entertainment, hospitality, and ritual purification). In many cases, his machines incorporated early concepts of automation, feedback regulation, and even mechanical programmability, positioning him as a visionary precursor to modern fields such as robotics, cybernetics, and control systems engineering [18], [19].
His devices laid the foundation for modern robotics not only in terms of mechanical logic and programmability, but also through their use of modular design, repeatable motion sequences, and force regulation mechanisms—features that closely parallel contemporary camshaft-driven robotics, translational cam followers, and planetary gear systems [20], [21], [22], [23], [24].
In the following sections, we examine some of Al-Jazarī’s most important and innovative devices. Each example demonstrates not only his remarkable technical skill, but also the conceptual foundations of modern mechanical systems embedded in his designs.
Figure 1. Al-Jazari’s Elephant Clock [25]
At its core, the clock operates on a clepsydra (water clock) principle. A concealed bowl inside the elephant’s body slowly fills with water through a steady drip. As it sinks over approximately thirty minutes, it activates a float mechanism that releases a ball into the mouth of a waiting dragon. This event sets off a chain of mechanical movements: the dragon pivots, striking a cymbal with its tail, while a mahout (elephant driver) figure moves and a scribe seated atop a tower rotates to indicate the passage of time [16] [14].
Mechanically, the device incorporated several components that are conceptually analogous to elements in modern control and automation systems:
This system can thus be interpreted as a proto-embedded system, integrating input sensing, mechanical processing, and output display—a remarkable accomplishment in the 13th century. Al-Jazarī’s own manuscript contains detailed diagrams, construction guidelines, and functional explanations, confirming that the device was not only designed but intended to be reproducible [16].
In addition to its technical sophistication, the Elephant Clock was rich in symbolic meaning. The inclusion of a Chinese dragon, Indian elephant, Persian carpet, and Egyptian phoenix was deliberate, signaling a worldview in which diverse civilizations contribute collectively to the advancement of science. It functioned as both a multi-indicator chronometer and a political-cosmological statement—a celebration of universal knowledge and cultural plurality.
Figure 2. Al-Jazari’s Castle Water Clock [28].
Constructed in the form of a tall, castle-like structure (reportedly over 3 meters high), the Castle Clock served multiple functions. It displayed the time of day, the positions of the sun and moon, and the progression of the zodiacal constellations. At each hour, automated doors would open to reveal figurines or astrological symbols, while falcon automata dropped metal balls into vases, producing a sound to mark the passage of time [16], [26].
The mechanical heart of the device relied on a conical plug valve and float chamber, regulating the flow of water with remarkable consistency. This system powered a rotating dial that represented the sun’s path and zodiacal arc. Moreover, the clock housed mechanical musicians and trumpeters, which were activated at prescribed intervals to provide auditory cues for special times of day.
Crucially, the Castle Clock featured an early form of programmability: the timing and sequence of its operations could be modified by repositioning pegs and counterweights along the mechanism’s surface. This allowed the user to adjust the timing cycle based on changing day lengths or personal preference—functionally equivalent to input parameters in modern programmable devices [16], [27].
From a modern perspective, the Castle Clock demonstrates characteristics analogous to those found in closed-loop control systems. The float valve acts as a feedback-regulated element, compensating for variations in water pressure to maintain consistent flow—a concept foundational to later control theory. The coordination of multiple mechanical outputs (rotating dials, falling balls, opening doors, musical performance) in response to a timed water flow reflects the sequential logic of modern analog computing devices.
Professor Salim Al-Hassani and other scholars have argued that the Castle Clock may rightfully be described as the first programmable analog machine in the history of mechanical engineering [5], [29]. It integrates input (water pressure and float control), processing (mechanical computation through timing mechanisms), and output (visual, auditory, and symbolic displays), fulfilling many functional criteria of a mechanical control system centuries before such concepts were formally defined.
The Castle Clock stands not only as a pinnacle of medieval clockmaking but also as a profound testament to Al-Jazarī’s innovative brilliance—an engineer whose understanding of automation, user adjustability, and system regulation was far ahead of his time.
Figure 3. Candle Clock [16]
One of Al-Jazarī’s designs featured a cylindrical candle of consistent cross-section placed inside a vertically calibrated housing. As the candle burned downward, it caused a counterweight mechanism to ascend proportionally, moving a dial or pointer to indicate the time elapsed. This basic structure offered a functional and accessible alternative to hydraulic clocks, especially useful during nighttime or in environments lacking a water source [10], [16].
However, Al-Jazarī did not stop at functionality. He enhanced the candle clock with automata and dynamic visual indicators—integrating mechanical figures that animated in response to the flame’s progression. One exemplary model, often referred to as the “Scribe Candle Clock,” included a figure of a mechanical scribe who periodically advanced along a surface to denote the passage of time. In other variations, figures dropped balls, struck chimes, or rotated, thereby transforming the clock into an early form of kinetic sculpture [4] [5].
lOne particularly notable mechanical innovation was Al-Jazarī’s use of a bayonet-style mounting mechanism that allowed the candle to advance upward uniformly as it burned, maintaining a consistent interaction with the rest of the clock’s mechanical system. As historian Donald Hill points out, this bayonet coupling represents the earliest known example of such a mechanism, conceptually analogous to modern bayonet light bulb fittings [10], [16].
These devices, by integrating visual storytelling with functional mechanics, resemble miniature mechanical theaters. More than mere tools for timekeeping, Al-Jazarī’s candle clocks served as objects of technological curiosity and artistic expression. Furthermore, the presence of interchangeable components—such as removable weights, adjustable screws, and configurable automata—suggests an early understanding of mechanical programmability. In this sense, Al-Jazarī approached the design not as a static apparatus, but as a reconfigurable system—a design principle central to modern engineering, robotics, and embedded systems.
Figure 4. The Ritual Ablution (Wuḍū) [31]
The mechanism took the form of a standing humanoid figure beside a basin, holding a jug. When activated—either by removing a peg, pulling a lever, or pressing a button—the automaton would tilt the jug forward to pour water into the basin, enabling the user to wash. After dispensing a measured amount of water for each phase of the ablution, the automaton would pause momentarily, then resume pouring, providing the appropriate volume and timing for each stage of the ritual [16], [30].
Technically, the system functioned through a combination of:
Al-Jazarī also envisioned that, upon completion of the ablution cycle, the automaton could emit an auditory signal (such as a chirp or bell) or automatically refill itself through a hidden siphon mechanism—a remarkable form of closed-loop functionality.
This device exemplifies human-centered mechanical design in the pre-modern era. It was, in essence, a robotic assistant, engineered to perform a culturally significant and repetitive task reliably, cleanly, and respectfully. The elegant use of hydraulics to mimic lifelike responsiveness reflects Al-Jazarī’s sophisticated understanding of fluid dynamics and mechanical automation.
More broadly, the ablution machine illustrates that Al-Jazarī’s inventions were not merely experimental curiosities or entertainment devices, but also deeply interwoven with the rituals, daily practices, and ethical sensibilities of his society. His work addressed real needs using innovative methods, anticipating principles of assistive technology, ergonomics, and automated hygiene systems long before their formal articulation in modern engineering [1], [30], [32].
Figure 5. Twin-cylinder water-raising pump designed by Al-Jazarī [18], [33]
Among the water-raising devices he described is a chain pump, which utilizes a series of buckets attached to a continuous loop driven by an undershot water wheel. This system enabled the vertical transport of water from rivers or canals for agricultural and urban use—demonstrating an effective integration of hydropower and mechanical design.
However, Al-Jazarī’s most technically sophisticated and historically significant contribution in this category is his invention of a twin-cylinder suction pump powered by a water wheel. This pump is recognized as the first known machine to incorporate a crankshaft mechanism, marking a pivotal moment in the history of mechanical engineering [1] [18].
Mechanically, the pump consists of:
The crankshaft, comprising two right-angled cranks mounted on a shared axle, was linked to pistons via connecting rods. These pistons operated out of phase, meaning that while one drew water in, the other expelled it—resulting in a smooth, continuous discharge with minimal flow interruptions. This design principle foreshadows the functionality of modern reciprocating pumps and even the internal combustion engine’s crankshaft, though here it is driven by hydropower rather than fuel combustion [1].
According to historian Donald R. Hill, this pump represents the first recorded example of converting continuous rotary motion into linear reciprocating motion in a machine—a fundamental innovation upon which countless later mechanisms were built [16]. The inclusion of flap valves further enhanced the system’s efficiency, ensuring a consistent direction of flow—an essential feature of modern pump and engine design.
Beyond its technical ingenuity, the pump reflects Al-Jazarī’s keen sensitivity to mechanical efficiency and system continuity. His meticulous illustrations, along with step-by-step construction instructions and commentary, suggest a deliberate effort to minimize energy loss and optimize hydraulic performance.
This twin-cylinder pump stands as one of Al-Jazarī’s most influential contributions to mechanical engineering. Its core concepts profoundly influenced later developments in both Middle Eastern and European pump technologies, forming a critical link in the evolutionary chain of hydraulic machinery [34], [35].
One of the most defining features of Al-Jazarī’s mechanical genius lies in his pioneering use of complex gear systems and motion-transmitting linkages. While gears had been known for centuries before him, Al-Jazarī significantly advanced their practical application—not only to regulate rotational speed and torque, but also to synchronise motion across multiple axes and mechanisms. In his treatise The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, he systematically describes the use of spur gears, bevel gears, and worm gears to control motion between perpendicular or non-aligned components [2], [16].
These gear trains were not merely theoretical concepts but the core mechanical frameworks for some of his most iconic inventions. For instance, in the Castle Clock, a rising float actuated a set of gears that powered rotating zodiac dials, automated doors, and animated figures, all synchronized through a coordinated system of linkages. Similarly, in his hydraulic machines, bevel gears enabled the redirection of force and enhanced torque to lift heavy volumes of water through piston or chain mechanisms [4].
Illustrated Mechanisms from Al-Jazarī’s Manuscript
The visual diagrams in Figures 6 and 7 provide vivid representations of how these gear systems were integrated into real-world hydraulic applications:
Figure 6. An animal-powered geared water-lifting system [3]
Figure 6 displays a donkey-powered piston system, in which an animal walking in a circular path drives a horizontal shaft. This motion is transferred through a bevel gear pair to a vertical shaft that operates a reciprocating piston pump submerged in water. The setup uses a crank and connecting rod to convert rotary to linear motion—effectively forming the earliest known crankshaft-driven hydraulic system [16].
Figure 7. Variants of gear-driven water-raising systems [3]
Figure 7 presents a composite of three hydraulic systems:
Programmability Through Cams and Mechanical Logic
Perhaps most forward-thinking is Al-Jazarī’s use of the camshaft mechanism, which transforms rotary motion into sequential linear motion—as seen in his mechanical musical boat. A rotating drum embedded with cam pegs triggers levers connected to mechanical musicians. By repositioning the pegs, the rhythm and sequence of motions can be changed—creating a form of mechanical programmability [14],[18], [27].
This system is conceptually comparable to:
Al-Jazarī’s documented use of this camshaft mechanism in 1206 predates similar European innovations by several centuries [13], [26].
Conclusion: Toward the Foundations of Systemic Engineering
Al-Jazarī’s gear trains and linkages were not built for spectacle alone; they represented functional, repeatable, and often programmable systems. Through a combination of:
He articulated a primitive but remarkably complete vision of mechanical systems theory—centuries before it would be formally defined.
Al-Jazarī’s machines were not just ad hoc wonders; they were grounded in sound engineering principles and reveal a deep intuitive understanding of mechanics, hydraulics, and what we might call systems thinking. His work prefigured many modern engineering concepts and demonstrated an approach to design that was both analytical and empirical. We discuss several key technical principles that defined his work and how they relate to contemporary engineering:
Through these principles, we see that Al-Jazarī’s contributions were not ad hoc gadgets but embodiments of underlying engineering concepts. Whether it was controlling water flow (hydraulic regulation), converting motion (kinematics of cranks and gears), implementing automatic responses (feedback control), or enabling adjustable functionality (programmability), Al-Jazarī was working with ideas that form the foundation of modern mechanical engineering. His intuitive grasp of these ideas allowed him to create machines that were remarkably ahead of their time, justifying his recognition as a true pioneer in the field.
Although Al-Jazarī’s manuscript remained relatively obscure in the West until its rediscovery and translation in the 20th century, his engineering concepts prefigured many principles that underpin contemporary robotics, automation, and mechatronic design. As historians and engineers have revisited his contributions, Al-Jazarī is increasingly recognized not only as a brilliant medieval inventor but also as a foundational figure in the evolution of modern engineering systems. We highlight a few areas of influence:
In conclusion to this section, Al-Jazarī’s engineering was far more than a product of its time; it was a projection into the future. His machines were not only technically impressive but conceptually transformative, laying a foundation for what would eventually become the fields of automation, control engineering, and robotics. Recognizing his contributions helps modern scholars and engineers appreciate the deep historical roots of their disciplines and the cross-cultural fertilization of ideas. Al-Jazarī’s legacy encourages us to look beyond traditional narratives and appreciate a global history of engineering wherein a 13th-century Muslim engineer can rightfully be seen as an ancestor of today’s roboticists and mechanists.
Al-Jazarī’s work stands as a monumental achievement in the history of science and engineering, offering a compelling blend of creativity, functionality, and foresight. Through his Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, Al-Jazarī provided not only a catalog of remarkable inventions but also a window into a sophisticated engineering mindset that integrated art, ethics, and empirical inquiry. His designs—ranging from programmable automata and intricate water clocks to advanced hydraulic and mechanical systems—demonstrate an understanding of principles that would not be formally articulated for centuries to come.
In this paper, we have examined the depth and breadth of Al-Jazarī’s contributions, positioning him as a pioneer whose ideas prefigured essential concepts in robotics, automation, and control systems design. Working in the intellectual milieu of the Islamic Golden Age, Al-Jazarī drew on cross-cultural knowledge and contemporary needs to create devices that were extraordinarily ahead of their time. Yet his work transcended his era by anticipating modern engineering frameworks and techniques. He was more than an inventor; he was an educator, a human-centric designer, and in many ways a philosopher of technology. He approached engineering challenges with a mindset that combined practical problem-solving with a vision of technological possibilities that would only be realized much later.
By analyzing Al-Jazarī’s inventions in both historical and modern contexts, we see that his legacy offers valuable insights for contemporary engineers, educators, and scholars. His life and work challenge us to reimagine innovation as inherently interdisciplinary, culturally informed, and ethically grounded. Al-Jazarī reminds us that the roots of modern engineering stretch far back and across cultures, and that ingenuity is a shared human heritage.
Al-Jazarī’s technological legacy – the foundations of robotics and automation laid out in his 1206 manuscript – continues to inspire. It serves as a testament to the idea that curiosity and creativity, coupled with diligent methods and knowledge sharing, can produce innovations that resonate through the ages. In a world facing new engineering challenges, the spirit of Al-Jazarī’s work – inventive, integrative, and purposeful – is as relevant as ever.
[1] Z. Şen, “Ancient water robotics and Abou-l Iz Al-Jazari,” Water Supply, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 699–709, May 2013, doi: 10.2166/WS.2013.031.<BR>.
[2] “The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: (Kitāb fī ma ’rifat … – P. Hill – Google Kitaplar.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: books.google.com.tr
[3] G. A. H. Emeritus, “Innovation of Mechanical Machinery in Medieval Centuries, Part IV: Mechanisms, Gear Trains and Cranes,” International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science & Technology, vol. 78, 2014, Accessed: Jun. 15, 2025. [Online]. Available: www.ijarcst.com
[4] “The Journey of Automatic Machines in Muslim Civilisation – Muslim Heritage.” Accessed: Jun. 15, 2025. [Online]. Available: muslimheritage.com
[5] “The different aspects of Islamic culture: Sciences and Technology in Islam – Ahmad, Maqbul, Al-Hassan, Ahmad Youssef, Iskandar, Albert Z., UNESCO – Google Kitaplar.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: books.google.com.tr
[6] M. Akram. Nadwī, “Al-Muḥaddithāt: the women scholars in Islam,” p. 314, 2007, Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: 1001inventions.com/
[7] “Medieval robots: How al-Jazari’s mechanical marvels have been resurrected in Istanbul | Middle East Eye.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: middleeasteye.net
[8] “Overview on al-Jazari and his Mechanical Devices – Muslim Heritage.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: muslimheritage.com
[9] L. Romdhane and S. Zeghloul, “AL-JAZARI (1136–1206),” pp. 1–21, 2009, doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-2346-9_1.
[10] “Islamic Science and Engineering – Donald R. Hill – Google Kitaplar.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: books.google.com.tr
[11] “Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East on JSTOR.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: jstor.org
[12] G. Nadarajan, “Islamic Automation: A Reading of al-Jazari’s The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices ( 1206) ISLAMIC AUTOMATION: A READI NG OF AL-JAZARI ’S THE BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE OF INGENI OUS MECHANI CAL DEVICES ( 1206) *,” 2007, Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: metmuseum.org
[13] “5 Amazing Mechanical Devices from Muslim Civilisation – 1001 Inventions.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: 1001inventions.com
[14] “Al-Jazari: The Ingenious Inventor of Cybernetics and Robotics – Muslim Heritage.” Accessed: Jun. 14, 2025. [Online]. Available: muslimheritage.com
[15] M. Dirik, “Al-Jazari: The Ingenious Inventor of Cybernetics and Robotics 1”, Accessed: Jun. 15, 2025. [Online]. Available: dergipark.org.tr
[16] I. ibn al-R. A.-Izz. Jazari and D. Routledge. Hill, “The book of knowledge of ingenious mechanical devices: <kitab fi ma Rifat al-Hiyal al-Handasiyya>,” p. 285, 1974.
[17] “800 Years Later: In Memory of Al-Jazari, A Genius Mechanical Engineer – Muslim Heritage.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: muslimheritage.com
[18] I. al-R. al-Jazarī, “The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices,” The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, 1973, doi: 10.1007/978-94-010-2573-7.
[19] R. V Jones, “The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices,” Physics Bulletin, vol. 25, no. 10, pp. 474–474, Oct. 1974, doi: 10.1088/0031-9112/25/10/040.<BR>.
[20] P. Yan, H. Huang, S. Wang, B. Li, and Z. Zhang, “Single-Actuated Camshaft Robot with Multiple Sequential Motions,” J Mech Robot, vol. 16, no. 6, Jun. 2024, doi: 10.1115/1.4062987/1164465.
[21] H. Wang, C. Zhang, Z. Lin, and G. Chen, “Meshing Analysis of the Planetary Indexing Cam Mechanisms,” Journal of Mechanical Design, vol. 127, no. 2, pp. 340–346, Mar. 2005, doi: 10.1115/1.1825043.
[22] L. I. Wu and P. H. Fang, “Synthesis of Stationary Cams,” Journal of Mechanical Design, vol. 121, no. 1, pp. 169–172, Mar. 1999, doi: 10.1115/1.2829419.
[23] J. López-Martínez, D. García-Vallejo, F. M. Arrabal-Campos, and J. M. Garcia-Manrique, “Design of Three New Cam-Based Constant-Force Mechanisms,” Journal of Mechanical Design, vol. 140, no. 8, Aug. 2018, doi: 10.1115/1.4040174/367597.
[24] K. L. Hsu, H. A. Hsieh, and L. I. Wu, “Positive-drive cam mechanisms with a translating follower having dual concave faces,” J Mech Robot, vol. 8, no. 4, Aug. 2016, doi: 10.1115/1.4032863/384278.
[25] T. Cankurt, I. Çelebi, and I. Giray, “Historical Significance and Modern Impact of Al-Jazari’s Elephant Clock,” History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 47, pp. 314–321, 2024, doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-54876-5_23.
[26] “The Robot Clocks of 12th-Century Turkey – Atlas Obscura.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: atlasobscura.com
[27] “Cover Art,” pp. c1–c1, Sep. 2017, doi: 10.1109/CBD.2017.82.
[28] “The Castle Clock – The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.” Accessed: Jun. 14, 2025. [Online]. Available: aljazaribook.com
[29] “Al-Jazari’s Castle Water Clock: Analysis of its Components and Functioning – Muslim Heritage.” Accessed: Jun. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: muslimheritage.com
[30] “Automatic Wuḍūʾ (الوضوء) Pitcher and Errors by Engineers – The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.” Accessed: Jun. 17, 2025. [Online]. Available: aljazaribook.com
[31] “The Ritual Ablution (Wuḍū- الوضوء) and the Basin of the Slave – The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.” Accessed: Jun. 15, 2025. [Online]. Available: aljazaribook.com
[32] “1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World: www.islamicebay.com: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming: Internet Archive.” Accessed: Jun. 17, 2025. [Online]. Available: archive.org
[33] “Water Pumps – The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.” Accessed: Jun. 15, 2025. [Online]. Available: aljazaribook.com
[34] “Al-Jazari: The Mechanical Genius – Muslim Heritage.” Accessed: Jun. 17, 2025. [Online]. Available: muslimheritage.com
[35] “The pump and the Crankshaft – The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.” Accessed: Jun. 17, 2025. [Online]. Available: aljazaribook.com
[36] D. R. Hill and D. A. King, “Studies in medieval Islamic technology: from Philo to al-Jazarī, from Alexandria to Diyarbakir,” p. 400, 2020.
Discover the golden
age of Muslim civilisation.
© Copyright FSTC Ltd 2002-2020. All Rights Reserved.
